ááźááşááŹáˇáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááááşá¸ááąáŹááşááťáŹá¸á áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááŹáá˝ááşá áąáŹááˇáşáážáąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááŻááşááśááąá¸ áááşááźá˝áážáŻááşáážáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸áĄááŤáĄáááş ááŹááąáŤááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹááąáŹáá°ááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş ááááŹá¸áááźááˇáş ááźá áşáááşááťáážááşáááş áá áşáá˝á˛áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźáŽá¸ááźáŽááźá áşáááşá
Myanmar’s defamation laws have been abused to unjustly criminalise hundreds including journalists, human rights defenders, and political activists.
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşááŹáĽáááą áááŻáˇáááŻááş ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşá áááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážáŹ áá°ááŻáášáááŻááşáá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááşá âááŻááşáááášááŹâ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ ááᯠááŹáá˝ááşáááşááźá áşáááşáá áá°áá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááşá ááŻááşáááášáᏠáááŻáááşáážáŹ áá°áˇáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áĄáá˝ááşá¸áážááá°á áááşáááşááťááşááźá áşáááşá áá°áá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááşá ááŻááşáááášááŹáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááᯠáááŻááşááśááᏠáĽáááąáĄáąáŹááşáá˝ááş áĄáŹáááśááťááşááąá¸ááŹá¸áááşá
âáĄáááŻááş áá : áááşáá°áá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááşááťáž áá°áááŻááşáááášááŹá ááťáąáŹáşááźáŹá¸áážáŻáĄááąáŤáş áĽáááąáážááˇáşáááŽááąáŹ áááŻááşáááŻááşáážáŻ áááśá áąááâá – áĄáááşáááşáážááˇáş áááŻááşááśááąá¸áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááťáŹá¸áááŻááşáᏠáááŻááşááśáááŹáááąáŹáá°ááŽááťááş(áááá)
âáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸â áááŻáááşáážáŹ áá°áá áşáŚá¸ á ááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠááťááşá áŽá¸á áąááąáŹ áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸áááˇáşáĄáááŻáá áşáááşááᯠááąáŤáşááźááŹáá˝ááşááŻáśá¸ááąáŹ ááąáŤááŹáááźá áşááźáŽá¸ ááŻá áŹá¸áááˇáşáááşá¸áááşá¸áááşá¸ áááŻáĄááşááąáááşáá áááşáááŻáˇáááşáááŻá áąááŹáá° áĄáąáŹááşááŤáĄááťááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄáááĄáážááşááźáŻ ááŹá¸áááşááŹá¸áááşáážáŹáááşá¸ áĄááąá¸ááźáŽá¸ááąáááşá
- áá áşá áŻáśáá áşáŚá¸áááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠááťááşáá˝ááşá¸á áąááźááşá¸áááş áá áşááŤáá áşááś ááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááŽáá˝ááşáááşá áĽáááŹ- áá áşá áŻáśáá áşáŚá¸á áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąáŹ ááŻááşáááşááᯠááááźááşááŹáĄáąáŹááş áááşááźááźááşá¸á
- áĄááťááŻáˇááąáŹáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááşáááŻááşá ááŹáááşáááŻá¸ áá˝ááşááąáá°ááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşááźáááşá áĽáááŹ- áĄááťááˇáşááťááşááźá áŹá¸ááąááąáŹ áĄá ááŻá¸á áĄááŹáážáááźáŽá¸áá áşáŚá¸ááᯠáĄáááąááťááşáááş áááşáá˛áááşá áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áážáŹ áá°áˇáĄááąááźááˇáş ááááşááááşá¸á ááŻááşáááášáᏠááťáááşá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááźá áşááą ááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáş ááźá áşáááşá
- áĄáááşá áááŻá¸ááŤá¸ááąáŹáááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻááźá áşááąáŤáşá áąáážááŹááťážááş áá°áá áşáŚá¸á ááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠááťááşáá˝ááşá¸á áąááźááşá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ ááźáąáŹááşááąáááşá áĽááᏠ– áááŻáá°á á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸ááᯠáááááŻááşáážáŻáážáááźááşá¸ááá°áˇáĄáááŻááşá¸áĄáááşá¸ááž áááŻááşá¸ááŤááşááśáááźááşá¸á
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááźá˛áááŻáááᯠáá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻááąá¸ááŹá¸ááźááşá¸ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááᯠáááşááąáŹááşáážáŻ áážááááşá
âáá°áááŻááşá¸áááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáážááˇáşáá˝ááşáááşááąáŹ áááąáŹááŹá¸áĄááźááşááťáŹá¸ áážáŻááźááşáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáş áážááááşá á¤áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸áá˝ááşáá°áááŻááşá¸áááş áĄáážáąáŹááˇáşáĄáážááş áĄáááˇáşáĄááŹá¸ááážáá áąáᲠáá˝ááşáááşááąáŹ áááąáŹááŹá¸ áĄááźááşááťáŹá¸ááŹá¸áážááááŻááşááźáŽá¸á ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááąáŹááŹá¸áĄááźááşááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ áááşáááˇáşááŽááŽááŹáááŻáááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻáᏠá áááşá ááşá¸áááźáŹá¸áᲠáážáŹáá˝áąáá˝ááˇáş á ááá°áá˝ááˇáş á áááşáááˇáşáááşá¸ ááźááˇáşááťáŽáá˝ááˇáşáááŻáˇáááşá¸ ááŤáááş ááąáááşáâ – áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááźáąááŹá áŹáááşá¸áááŻááşá (áá)
áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáş ááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáááş áĄááźáąááśáá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ áá áşáááşááźá áşááźáŽá¸ áá˝ááşáááşááźáŽá¸ ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáááşá¸ááťááąáŹ áá°áˇáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áááŻááşá¸á áĄááźáąááśáĄáŻááşááźá áşááźá áşáááşá áá áşáŚá¸ááťááşá¸ áááŻá¸áááşáážáŻá ááąáŹááşá¸áá˝ááşááąáŹ áĄáŻááşááťáŻááşáážáŻáážááˇáş ááťááşáĄááźáŹá¸ááąáŹ áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŹáá˝ááşá ááźááˇáşááąáĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááşáážááˇáş ááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááşáĄáá˝áẠᥠáá˝ááşáĄááąá¸ááźáŽá¸ááąáŹáĄááŹááźá áşááŤáááşá áááŻááˇáşá áááşáá˛áá˝ááşáážááááşááᯠáá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááźáąáŹáá˝ááˇáşááá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááŻáááŻááąá¸á áŹá¸ááśááááşáá°ááąáŹ á áááşááźá áşááąáŤáşá ááááááááᯠáááŻáááąáŹááşá¸á á˝áŹ á áŽááśááááşá¸ááťáááŻááşáááşá áĄá ááŻá¸ááááŻá áąáŹááˇáşááźááˇáşáá°áĄááźá áş áážáŻááşáážáŹá¸ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáááŻááşááźáŽá¸ áĄááąá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşááťáŹá¸ááťáááˇáş ááá ášá áááşáááŻááşá¸áá˝ááş ááŤáááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáááŻááşáááş ááźá áşáááşá
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáĄááŤáĄáááş ááŻááááášááĄáá˝á˛áˇáááşáááŻááşááśáĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠá á˝á˛áááŻááşááŹá¸áááş áááááááş ááźáŻááŹá¸ááźáááˇáş áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸ááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸ááᯠáĄááźááşááźááşáááŻááşáᏠáá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ ááźáąááŹá áŹáááşá¸á ááŻááşá (áá)á áĄáááşáááşáážááˇáş áááŻááşááśááąá¸ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸áááŻááşáᏠáááŻááşááśáááŹáááááŹááş (ICCPR) áĄááźááşá áĄáŹááŽááśáá°áˇ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááźáąáᏠá áŹáááşá¸áá˝ááşáááşá¸ áá˝áąáˇáááŻááşáááşá áááşá¸áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸á áĄááşášááŤáááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááŻááşááśáááŹáááąáˇááŻáśá¸áááşá¸ áĽáááąáá˝ááş áááşá¸ ááąáˇááŹáá˝áąáˇáážááááŻááşááŤáááşá
áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠáááŻááşááśáááŹáĽáááąáá˝ááş á¤áá˛áˇáááŻáˇ ááááťá á˝áŹ áĄáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻááŹá¸áááşá áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠ–
- áááŻááşááśááŹá¸ áááŻáˇáááŻááş áĄááźáŹá¸ááąáŹááąáŹááşááśáĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áááşá¸áĄá áá˝á˛ááźáŹá¸áážáŻááážááᲠáá°áááŻááşá¸ áááŻááşáááŻááşáááşá
- áááşá¸áá˝ááş ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáážáŹáá˝áąáá˝ááˇáşá ááá°áááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşáážááˇáş ááźááˇáşááąáá˝ááˇáşáááŻáˇáááşá¸ ááŤáááşáááşá
- áááşá¸áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸áá˝ááş áááŻááşááśááąá¸áááŻááşáᏠááąá¸ááŹá¸ááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşááťáŹá¸ááž ááŽááŽáᏠá áááşááťáąá¸áážáŻáážááˇáşáááŻááşááąáŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşááťáŹá¸áĄááźááş ááŹááĄáá áĄáá˝áąá¸áĄááąáŤáşáĄááźáśááŹááşáĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ ááŤáááşáááşá
- áĄá˝ááşáááŻááşá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áááşá¸áááąáŤáşááž ááášáááźáážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáá áááşáááˇáşáááşá¸áážááˇáşáááᯠááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáááŻááşáááşá
- áááşááááááşáĄáááˇáşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááťáąáŹáşáá˝ááşá áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááŻááşáááşá
áĄáááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááˇáş áááşá¸á á áşááťááş
áááŻááşááśáááŹáĽáááąáĄá áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠáĄáá˝ááşááťááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááąáŹáĄááźáąáĄááąááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áááˇáşáááşáááŻááşááŤáááşá á¤áĄááŹá¸áĄááŹááťááŻá¸ááᯠ(áááşá¸áááˇáşáááşáááŻááşáááˇáşáĄááźáąáĄááąáááŻ) áĄá ááŻá¸áááž áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááŹááźááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááŹáá˝ááşáááş áááŻááşááśáááŹáĽáááąáá˝ááş ááááťááąáŹ á ááşá¸áááşá¸áá áşáááş áážáááŤáááşá áĄáááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááˇáş áááşá¸á á áşááťááşááŻááąáŤáşááąáŹ áĄáááŻá፠á ááşá¸áááşá¸áááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠáááˇáşáááşáážáŻáážááˇáşáááşáááşá áĄáąáŹááşá፠áĄáááŻááşá¸ ááźáášááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸áááş –
á á áááşáážáŹá¸ááááťááąáŹ áĽáááąáá áşáááşáážáááŤááťážááş áááˇáşáááşáááŻááşáááş ááźá áşááźáŽá¸ ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄááŹáážáááťáŹá¸á áááşá¸áááŻáˇá áááşáááŻááşá¸ááť ááŹá¸ááŽá¸ ááźááşááąáŹááşáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşááážáááŤá
á á áá áşááŤá¸áá°á áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) ááŻááşáááášáᏠ(áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşááŻáśááźáŻáśááąá¸áážááˇáş ááźááşáá°áá°ááŻááŻáśááźáŻáśááąá¸á ááźááşáá°áˇááťááşá¸ááŹááąá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) ááźááşáá°áˇáááŻááşááťááˇáşáááŹá¸ááᯠááŹáá˝ááşáááş áá°ááąáŹ áááşáá˝ááşááťááşááťáŹá¸ááźááˇáşáᏠáááˇáşáááşáááŻááşáááşááá áááşááśáááŻááşáááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áááşáá˝ááşááťááş ááážáááŤá
á á ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáá°áˇáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áĄáá˝ááşá¸ áĄááąá¸ááąáŤáş ááźáąáážááşá¸áááş ááąáŤáşááąáŤááşááŹáááˇáş áááŻáĄááşááťááşáĄáá˝ááşáᏠáááˇáşáááşáááŻááşáááşá áááŻáˇáĄááźááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇáááˇáşáááşááŹáá˝ááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááąá¸ááŹá¸ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźááşá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáş áááááŻááşáááŻááşááťáąáážááááˇáş áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻ áážááˇáş áĄááťááŻá¸ááŽááąáŹ áááˇáşáááşááťááşáááŻáᏠááźáŻááŻááşá áááşááźá áşáááşá
The purpose of a defamation law or provision is to protect an individual’s right to a âreputationâ. A person’s reputation is their standing within society. The right to reputation is guaranteed under international law:
“Article 17: No one shall be subjected to [âŚ] unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation.”
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
“Defamation” is the word used to describe false statements of fact that damage a person’s reputation and require remedy. However, it is important to recognise that:
- Damaging someoneâs reputation is often justified. For example, raising awareness of someone’s wrongdoing.
- Some people already have bad reputations. For example, it is difficult to defame a corrupt governmental official because their reputation is already bad.
- Damaging a person’s reputation is only defamation if it causes serious harm. For example, by affecting their business or leading to social exclusion.
Defamation laws always impact on the right to freedom of expression, which is similarly protected under international law.
“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.” Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The right to freedom of expression is a fundamental human right, and the foundation of every free and democratic society. It is important for personal development, good governance, and the protection, promotion, and exercise of all other human rights. People who are free to speak their minds feel more respected, are better able to plan their lives, can act as a government watchdog, and can get involved in all sorts of decision-making.
All UN member states including Myanmar have committed to uphold the right to freedom of expression. This commitment can be found in Article 19 of the UDHR, Article 19 of the ICCPR, and in the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration. Elements of the right can also be found under international customary law.
The right to freedom of expression is precisely defined in international law. It:
- belongs to everyone regardless of their nationality or other background.
- includes the right to seek, receive, and impart information.
- includes ideas of all kinds, from political to media, to cultural expression, or even to jokes.
- can be expressed through any way, such as online or in street protests.
- applies regardless of borders.
The three-part test
According to international law, the right to freedom of expression can be limited in very narrow circumstances. In order to stop governments from misusing these limitations, international law has a very precise rule, called the three-part test, which says that freedom of expression can only be limited if:
- There is a clear and precise law â public officials cannot just censor as they like.
- The limitation aims to either protect the rights or reputations of others, or protect national security, public order, public health or morals. There are no other acceptable aims.
- The limitation is necessary in a democratic society to address a pressing need, and only if the limitation is proportionate to the harm caused.
á á˝ááşá á˝á˛áážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ áááŻááşáá˝ááşááźáąáážááşá¸ááŹáá˝ááş áááŻááşááśáá áşááŻá áĄááźáŻáĄáá°áááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄááąááźááˇáş áááşááťážááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáááşáááşááᯠááźáááąáŹ áĄááąá¸á፠áááˇáş áĄáá˝ážááşá¸ááááşá¸áá áşááŻáááşá¸ááźá áşáááşááĄáŹááŹáážááşáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááşááź ááŹáĄáŹááŹááźáŽá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáş áĄá ááŻá¸ááĄáŹá¸ ááąáááşáááˇáş ááąáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááážáááşáááşáááşáá˝ááşáááˇáş áážáŻááşáá˝áąá¸ááźáŽá¸áááąááŹááąáŹááŹááááşáážáŻáĽáááąáá°ááąáŹááşááťáŹá¸áááŻáᏠáááŻááşá á˝á˛ááŹá¸áááş á ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááşáá° áĄáášáááŹááşáážáááźáŽá¸ á áááááŻááşáážáŻáážáááąáŹ ááááşááŹáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŹá¸ááŽá¸áááşáĄáá˝ááşáᏠááťá áşáá áşááąáŹ áááŹá¸ááážáŻáĽáááąáááŻááşáᏠáĄááźáąááśáá°ááťáŹá¸ áážáááźáááşá
áĄáąáŹááşááŤáááŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄáŹááŹáážááşá áá áşáážááˇáş ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áá áş áĄááźáąáĄááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáážááŻááşá¸áážááşááźááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áá áşááťáŹá¸ áááşáááˇáşáĄááŹááᯠáážáąá¸áážáŻáááˇáşáááşááᯠááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸áááşá
The manner in which states deal with allegations of defamation is an important indicator of how democratic they are. Authoritarian states have vague and confusing criminal law frameworks intended to suppress criticism of the government and powerful people. Democratic states have narrow civil law frameworks intended to stop malicious and harmful lies.
The below table compares authoritarian and democratic situations and shows what democracies should be aiming for.
áĄáá˝ááşáá°á¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸áážáŻ áĄá
(áááŻááᯠáĄáŹááŹáážááşáááş) Start of transition (more authoritarian) | > | áĄáá˝ááşáá°á¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸áážáŻ áĄááŻáśá¸ (áááŻááᯠááŽáááŻáááąá
áŽáááş) End of transition (more democratic) |
áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŻááşáááşáá˛ááąá¸/á
áąáŹáşááŹá¸áážáŻáážááˇáş ááąáŹáá˝áąá¸áážáŻáážáá Defamation confused with insult / offending. | > | áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠáážááşá¸áážááşá¸áááşá¸áááşá¸ áĄáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻáážáŻáážáá Defamation is clearly defined. |
ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáş ááážáá No real defences. | > | ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáááˇáş áĄááťááşááťáŹá¸ áážááşá¸áááşá¸ááźááşááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááąááşáážááˇáşáĄáᎠááźááşáááşááźááˇáşá
á˝ááşáážáŻáážáá Defences are clear and evolving. |
ááŹááááşáĽáááą (áááŻáˇ) áĄáá˝ááşááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹ áááŹá¸ááĽáááąááťáŹá¸ ááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸á Criminal laws or extreme civil laws. | > | ááŹááááşáĽáááąáĄááźá
áş áááşáážááşáááŻááşááźáą áĄáá˝ááşáááşá¸á áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá
áŹá¸ ááŽááąáŹ ááŻá
áŹá¸áážáŻ (áĄááźá
áşáááş)áᏠáážáááąáŹ áááŹá¸á áĽáááąáᏠááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸á Criminal laws rare. Civil laws with proportionate compensation. |
áĄáážáŻáĄááťáŹá¸á
áŻáááş áĄáŹááŹáážáááąáŹ áá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄáŹááŹááťááá˛áˇááąáŹ áá°ááťáŹá¸áĄááźáŹá¸ ááźá
áşááąáˇáážáá Most cases are powerful people versus less powerful. | > | áĽáááąáĄááŹáážáááťáŹá¸á ááŹáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄáŹá¸áááąá¸á áĄáŹááŹáážááá°ááťáŹá¸ áá˝ááˇáşáááˇáş áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸á áááşááśááąáˇ ááážáá Prosecutors unlikely to support criminal cases. Courts sceptical of powerful people bringing cases. |
áĄááźá
áşáááşááťáŹá¸áááş ááŻááşáááášááŹáááş ááśá
áŹá¸ááťááşááᯠááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸á Punishments protect feelings, not reputations. | > | ááááŹáááşáážáŹá¸á
á˝áŹ áááŻááşááŹááááąáŹ áááááŻááşáážáŻááąáŤáşáá°áááşá ááŻá
áŹá¸áážáŻ (áĄááźá
áşáááş) áááşáážááşá Compensation calculated on clearly measured harm. |
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáá˝ááş ááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸áĄáá˝ááş áááŹá¸áĽáááąáĄá ááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸ááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹááąáŹ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááŤáááşááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááźá áşááŤáááşááááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄáááşáážáĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááş áá˝á˛ááźáŹá¸ááźáŹá¸ááŹá¸ááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážáááźáááᯠááááąáŹááááąáŹááşáááˇáşáááąáŹááťáŹá¸áááşá¸ áá˝áąáˇáážáááááşá
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ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáááŻááşááśáá áşáááŻááşááśáá˝ááş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áĄá ááŻá¸áááĽáááąááťáŹá¸á áá°ááŤáááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş ááŻááşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááťááşááťáŹá¸áááş áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááśáĽáááąáážááˇáş áááŻááşááŽáážáŻáážáááážáááᯠáá áááşááááŻááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş áááşá¸á á áşáááşáááşáážáááąááźáááşá áĽáááŹ-áĄáááşá áĽáááąáá áşááŻáááşáá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááťááŻá¸ááąáŤááşáááşáááŻááťážááşáááŹá¸áá°ááźáŽá¸ááá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáś áĄááźáąááśáĽáááąá፠áá˝ááşáááşááźááşá¸áááŻááąáŹ áĄááźáąááśáá°áážááˇáşáááˇáşááťááşáááˇáş áĄáá˝ááş áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĽáááąáážááˇáş ááááŻááşááŽááŻááźáąááźáŹááááşá
ááŻááşá áá á áážááˇáş ááá
ááźááşááŹáˇ áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááś áĽáááąá፠ááŻááşá áá á áážááˇáş ááá áááŻáˇáááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáážááˇáş áĄáá°á¸áááźááˇáşáááşáááşáááşá ááŻááşá áá á á ááŻááşááąáŹáşááąá¸ááŹá¸ááźáąáŹáááŻááźááşá¸áážááˇáş ááźááˇáşááťáŽááŹáá˝ááşáá˝ááşáááşáážáŻááᯠáĄááąáŹááşáĄááśáˇ ááźáŻááŹá¸áááşá ááŻááşá ááá ááá° áĄááŻááᏠáážááˇáşá áŹááąááᯠáá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ áááşááŽá¸ááŻááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáĄáŹá¸ ááźááŹááşá¸áááşá áááŻáˇááąáŹáşáááşá¸ âáááşááźáááşáĄáąá¸ááťááşá¸ááąá¸áâ âáĄááťááŻá¸ááŹá¸áá˝áąá¸á ááşá¸ ááŽáá˝ááşááąá¸â áážááˇáş âááŻáśááźáŻáśááąá¸â áááŻáˇáážááˇáşáááşáááşááźáŽá¸ ááááťáážáŻááážáááąáŹ áááşáá˝ážááşá¸áá˝ááˇáşáááŻááťááşááťáŹá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáş áĄáááşááŤááŻááşááážá áşááŻááŻáśá¸áĄáŹá¸áááşá¸ ááťááşáážááááşá
In Myanmar, legal provisions protecting reputations are included in several laws, all of which are different and potentially conflicting.
The right to freedom of expression is protected in the Myanmar Constitution under Articles 6, 354, and 365.
âThe Unionâs consistent objectives are: (e) enhancing the eternal principles of justice, liberty and equality in the Union.â Article 6 of the Myanmar Constitution
Article 6 references “liberty”, a concept with profound global political origins consisting of the social, political, and economic freedoms to which everyone is entitled – the historical basis for the more recent concept of “human rights”.
Including liberty as a basic principle of the state is important because it means that all Myanmar’s laws, policies, and actions must enhance freedom. If they do not, then they are “unconstitutional”.
In a democracy, courts exist partly to check whether the government’s laws, policies, and actions are unconstitutional. For example, if a law violates the right to freedom of expression, a judge should declare it unconstitutional on the basis that it contradicts the constitutional principle of liberty.
Articles 354 and 365
Articles 354 and 364 of the Myanmar Constitution are more specifically concerned with freedom of expression. Article 354 provides for the liberty to express and publish. Article 365 provides for the right to freely develop literature and arts. However, both are weakened by vague references to “security”, “national solidarity”, and “tranquillity”.
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááş ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááą á ááťááŻá¸ á ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááş áá ááťááŻá¸áá˝ááşáá˝áąáˇááááşá áááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄáááşáážáááşáááşá¸ áĄáááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááş ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸áááş áĄáááą ááťááşááźááşá¸ááᯠáĄáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşááŹá¸áááˇáş áá áşááŻáááşá¸ááąáŹáĽáááąááźá áşááźáŽá¸ ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşááťááşááťáŹá¸áááşá¸ ááŤáááşáááşá áĄááźáŹá¸ááąáŹ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áááŻááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááźáŽá¸ááž ááąá¸áá˝á˛ááźááŹááşá¸áá˛áˇááąáŹáşáááşá¸ ᥠáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻááťááşáážááˇáş ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşááťááşááťáŹá¸ áááŤáááşááŤá
Defamation falls under 11 provisions in six criminal laws. The oldest of these laws, the Penal Code, is the only law that defines defamation or includes defences. The other laws adopted after the Penal Code include no definitions and no defences.
áĽáááą Law | ááŻááşá Articles | á
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááźááşá¸áážááˇáşááźááşáááşááťááş Adopted and amended | ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĄáááą ááťááşáážáŻ Criminal? | ááźá
áşáááş áážááˇáş áááşááŹáá˝ááˇáş Sanction / remedy |
ááźá
áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááąá ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸ Penal Code | ááŻááşá ááá-á
áá Articles 499-502. | ááźáááááťážáĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááş ááááááŻáážá
áş áá˝ááşá
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááşá Adopted in 1861 under the British government. | Yes | ááąáŹááşáááş á áážá
áşáĄáá áážááˇáşáá˝áąáááş Up to 2 years in prison + fine. |
áĄáŽáááşáááąáŹáá
áş áááşáá˝ááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááąá¸áĽáááą Electronic Transactions Law | ááŻááşá áá(á) Article 34(d). | á
á
áşáĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááş áááá áá˝ááş á
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááááááŻáážá
áş áĄáááşááŹá¸áá
áşáááŻááşá¸áĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááş áá˝ááşááźááşáááşáá˛áˇáááşá Adopted in 2004 under the military. Amended in 2013 under the quasi-civilian government. | Yes | ááąáŹááşáááş á áážá
áşáĄááá áážááˇáşáá˝áąáááş Up to 3 years in prison + fine. |
áááşáá˝ááşááąá¸áĽáááą Telecommunications Law | ááŻááşá áá(á) Article 66(d). | áĄáááşááŹá¸áá
áşáááŻááşá¸áĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááş ááááááŻáážá
áşáá˝ááşá
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááááááŻáážá
áş NLDáĄá
ááŻá¸á áááşáááşáá˝ááşááźááşáááşáá˛áˇáááşá Adopted in 2013 under the quasi-civilian government. Amended in 2017 under the NLD. | Yes | ááąáŹááşáááş á áážá
áşáĄáá áážááˇáşáá˝áąáááş Up to 2 years in prison + fine. |
áĄááťááˇáşááťááşááźá
áŹá¸áážáŻáááŻááş ááťááşááąá¸ áĽáááą Anti-corruption Law | ááŻááşá áá Article 46. | áĄáááşááŹá¸áá
áşáááŻááşá¸áĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááş ááááááŻáážá
áşáá˝ááşá
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááááááŻáážá
áş NLDáĄá
ááŻá¸á áááşáááşáá˝ááşááźááşáááşáá˛áˇáááşá Adopted in 2013 under the quasi-civlian government. Amended in 2018 under the NLD. | Yes | ááąáŹááşáááş á áážá
áşáĄááá áážááˇáşáá˝áąáááş Up to 3 years in prison + fine. |
ááááşá¸ááŽááŽááŹáĽáááą News Media Law | ááŻááşá á(ááááá)á ááŻááşá áá
(á,á) áážááˇáş ááŻááşá áá Article 9(a,b,g), Article 25(a,b), Article 30. | ááááááŻáážá
áş áĄáááşááŹá¸áá
áşáááŻááşá¸áĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááşáá˝ááş á
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááşá Adopted in 2014 under the quasi-civilian government. | Yes | áá˝áąáááşááťááş -á,ááá,ááá áĄáá Up to 1,000,000 Kyat fine. |
áááŻááşááśááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á ááŻáášáááŻááşáááŻááşáᏠáá˝ááşáááşáážáŻ áážááˇáş ááŻáśááźáŻáśáážáŻááᯠááŹáá˝ááş ááąá¸ááąá¸áĽáááą Law Protecting the Security and Privacy of Citizens | ááŻááşá á(á
) áážááˇáş ááŻááşá (áá) Article 8(f) and Article 10. | NLD áĄá
ááŻá¸ááááşáááş áááá ááŻáážá
áşáá˝ááşá
áááşááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááş Adopted in 2017 under the NLD government. | Yes | ááąáŹááşáááş á áážá
áşáĄááá áážááˇáşáá˝áąáááş Up to 3 years in prison + fine. |
áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááźááşááŹáˇáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááťááźááşá¸á áááşá¸áááŻáˇáááş áááŻááşááśáááŹá áĄááźáąááśáĄááťááŻáśá¸ááąáŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááŻáááşááťážááş áááŻááşááŹáážáŻááážáááźáąáŹááşá¸ áááŻááşááąáŹáşááąááźááşá¸ ááźá áşáááşá áĄáá°á¸áááźááˇáş á áŽáááşááťááşáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş ááźááşááŹáˇáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄáŹá¸ áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááŻáśááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźáááźáŽá¸ááźá áşáááşá
âŚááŻááşáááášááŹáááş ááśá áŹá¸ááťááşáááŻááŹáá˝ááşááźááşá¸âŚ
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááťááşáĄáááş áĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááźáąáŹáááŻááźááşá¸áááş áĄááźááşáĄáá°áĄá ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááŻáᏠááźá áşáááşááąá¸ááąáˇáážááááşá áááŻáá˛áˇáááŻáˇááąáŹ áááşááźááşáá°áááťááşáááąáŹááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠâáááááŻááşá áąááąáŹ áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááŹâ ááŻááąáŤááşá¸á ááşáááşááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸á áááŹá¸ááśááž ááŻááśááźááşá¸ááŻááşáááşááźáááş áĄááşáĄáŹá¸ ááážááááŻááşáááˇáşá áááşááśá áŹá¸ááťááşáááşááąáŹá áśáááşáážááşááťááşááťáŹá¸ááźááˇáşâáááşááąááźááźááşá¸â ááᯠááťááŻá¸áážáááşááŹá¸áááşá
⌠ááŻááťáąááťááşááťáŹá¸áááŻáá áşááťá° áážáŻááźááşá¸ âŚ
ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸ ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşáá˝ááşááŤáááşááąáŹ áááˇáşáááşááŹá¸áááˇáş ááŻááťáąááťááşááťáŹá¸áááşááťážááş áá áşááŤáá áşááśáá˝ááş áá áşááťá°áážáŻááźááşá¸ááśááááşá áááŻáˇááźáąáŹááˇáş áááŹá¸ááśáááş ááááąáŹááşááĄáááááťááąáŹ ááťážáąáŹááşáá˛ááťááşááťáŹá¸áááş áááşááąááťáŹá¸ááĄáááşáĄáá˝áąá¸áážááˇáş áĄáááşáĄááťááşá¸ áá˛áˇáááŻáˇááąáŹáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻá ááŻááşááŻáśá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸áĄáážáŹá¸áááŻááŹááąáŹááşááźáážáŽáááŻááąáááąáŹáˇáááşá
⌠ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄááŹáážáááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááŻááşááśááąá¸áááŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş ááąáááşááźááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááźá áşáááşááąá¸ááźááşá¸ âŚ
ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄááŹáážáááťáŹá¸á áááŻááşááśááąá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á ááŹááŹááąá¸ááąáŤááşá¸ ááąáŹááşááťáŹá¸á á á áşáááşáážááˇáş á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ ááŻááşáááşá¸áážááşááźáŽá¸ááťáŹá¸ áĄááŤáĄáááş ááźááŹáĄáŹááŹáážááá°ááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááąáááşááąáŹááşááźáááˇáş áá°ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááŹá¸ á á˝á˛áááŻáááş áĄá ááŻá¸ááážáąáˇááąáážááˇáş áá˛ááťáŹá¸á ááśáˇáááŻá¸áá°ááŽááźáááşá ááŽáááŻáááąá Ꭰáá˝áśáˇááźááŻá¸áááŻá¸áááşááąá¸áĄáá˝ááş áĄá ááŻá¸ááááąáŹáşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸á áááŹá¸á áŽáááşááąá¸áááąáŹáşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ ááźááŹáĄáŹááŹáážááá°ááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş ááźáŽá¸ááŹá¸áááˇáş ááąáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş áááşá¸ááśá áááşáá˝áąá¸áááş áááŻááşáá˝ááşá¸ááźááşá¸áááźáŻááźááąá
⌠áážáąáŹááˇáşáážáąá¸ááźááˇáşááźáŹáážáŻ âŚ
áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááşá á áşááąá¸ááźááşá¸ááááŻááşáááşáážááˇáş á á áşááąá¸ááąá ááşáážá áşááŻááŻáśá¸áá˝ááş áĄáážáŻááźá áşá ááşáááŻá¸áááşáážáŻáááş áĄáá˝ááşáážáąá¸áá˝áąá¸áááˇáşáĄááźááş áááşááŻááşáááşáááŻá¸ááźá áşáááźáŽá¸ á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááśááá°á ááášááŹááąá¸áážááˇáş á áááşáááŻááşá¸áááŻááşááŹááťááşá¸ááŹááąá¸ááᯠááááŹáááşáážáŹá¸á á˝áŹ áááááŻááşá áąáááşá
⌠áááş … ááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹ áĄááźá áşáááşáááşááźááşá¸áááŻáᏠáĄááźá˛áá áą ááźáŻááąáˇáážááááş âŚ
á áŽáááşááťááşááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááźá˛áááŻááᯠáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáá° (áááŹá¸áááŻ)áááşáááŻáᏠáĄááąá¸ááŹááąáˇáážáááźáŽá¸ áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áĄááąáŤáş ááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹ ááŹááááşááźá áşáááşááťáŹá¸ ááťáážááşááąáˇáážááááşá áĽáááąá áá˝áąáááşáážááˇáş ááąáŹááşáááşáážá áşáááşá ááŻáśá¸ááᯠááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹáşáááşá¸ áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸á áááŻáááŻááźááşá¸áááşáááˇáş áĄááźá áşáááşáááŻáᏠáá˝áąá¸ááťááşááźáááşá
⌠áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹáááŹá¸á áŽáááşááźááşá¸áážááˇáş ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáá°á¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááąá¸ ááŹáááᯠáááşáááşá ááşá¸á áŹá¸áááˇáşáĄááááşáĄááąáŹááşááŻáśá¸áááážá
ááŽáááŻáááąá Ꭰáá°á¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááąá¸ááŹááĄáá˝ááşá¸ áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸á áĄáááşá¸ ááášááĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄáá˛á áááşááźááşá¸á áĄááąáŹááşáĄááŹá¸áážáŹ á ááŻá¸á ááşá¸ááťáž ááŹáážááááşá áĽáááŹ- áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĽáááąáá áşá ááźááŹááşá¸ááąá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹ áá˝ááşáááşáážáŻá ááşá¸ááťááşá¸áĽáááąááá˛áˇáááŻáˇ áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáş áĄááąá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş ááááşáĄáŹááŹáážááş áĄá ááŻá¸ááááşáááşááááşá¸ááážááá˛áˇáááˇáş áážáąá¸ááťáááˇáşáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áá áŽáááşááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸á áááŻááşáááşááŽáážáŻááᯠáááşáááş á ááşá¸á áŹá¸ááŻáśááááąá
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá áĽáááąáá°ááąáŹááşáááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáá° (áááŹá¸áááŻ) áááşáááŻáᏠááááááŹáᏠáĄááąá¸ááąá¸ááŹá¸áááᯠáĽáááąáĄá ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻááşáᏠáááşá¸ááťá°ááŹááťáŹá¸áážáŹáááşá¸ áĄáŹá¸áááşá¸ááťááşáážááááşá áážáąáˇááąáĄááťáŹá¸áĄááźáŹá¸áááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇ áĄáážáŻ áááşááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááş(ááŻááťáąáááş) áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ (áááŻáˇ) áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸áĄááźáąááźáŻ áááŹááťá°ááŹááťáŹá¸ááᯠáážáśáˇá ááşáážáŻ áážááááąáᲠáááşá¸áááŻáˇá áĄáážáŻáááşáááş áá áşáááşáá á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááŹá¸áááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáááşáááŻááąáŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşááᯠáááźáŻááŻááşáá˛áˇááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááźááşá¸áááŻááťáąááááˇáş áááşá¸ááťá°ááŹáááŻáᏠááŻáśá¸á á˝á˛ááąáááşá áĄáąáŹááşáá˝ááş ááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááťá°ááŹááťáŹá¸áááş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáá˝ááş áĄááŻáśá¸áááźáŻáááąá¸áááˇáş ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹáĄááŻáśá¸áááşááąáŹ áĽáááąáááŻááşáᏠáááşá¸ááťá°ááŹááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸ááťá°ááŹáááŻááşá¸áááş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáážááˇáş áááŹá¸áĽáááąá áá áş áá°áááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá°ááááťáŹá¸áĄááŻáśá¸áááşááąáŹ áĽáááąáááŻááşáᏠáááşá¸ááťá°ááŹááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşáááşá
ááźá áşáážáŻá áĄá áááşáĄáááŻááşá¸áá áşááŻá áŽáááŻááşá¸ááᯠáááşááąááźáŻááźááşá¸
ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááą (ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸) ááŻááşá ááá áá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ááᯠáĄáááŻááşá¸ááŤá¸áááŻááşá¸ááźááˇáş áĄáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻááŹá¸áááşá áĽáááąáĄááŹáážááá áşáŚá¸áááş áá áşá áŻáśáá áşááąáŹááş ááźá áşáážáŻáááşáážáŹá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ áĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááźáááŻááşáááşáĄáá˝ááş ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááťááŻá¸ááŽááťáąáŹáşááąáŹ ááśáááááŻáááşáááşáááŻá áááŻáĄáááŻááşá¸ááŤá¸áááŻááşá¸ááᯠáááşááąááźáááˇáşáááş (áááşááąááźáááŻááşááááş)á áááŻáážáᏠááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáážáŻ ááťá°ááŹáá áşááŻááźá áşáááˇáş áááŻáĄáááŻááşá¸ááŤá¸áááŻááşá¸ááᯠááśááááźááˇáş ááąá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááŻááşááááş ááźá áşáááş –
- âáááşáá°áááᯅ⠖ áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áááş áá°ááŻáášáááŻááşáá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááş ááźá áşááááşá
- â…áážáŻááşááźááˇáşááźá áşá áąá áááşáážáŻá áąáááş ááźáśáá˝ááşáááˇáşá ááŹá¸ááźááˇáş ááźá áşá áąá áĄáážááşáĄááŹá¸ááźááˇáşááźá áşá áąá áááşáážáŹá¸ááąáŹ ááŻáśááášááŹááşááźááˇáşááźá áşá áą…â – áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áááş áááşá¸á ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźáááťááşááᯠáĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ááᯠááá áąááźááşá áąáááŻá ááťážááąáááŻááąáŹ áááşáá˝ááşááťááş áážáááááşá
- â…ááźáąááŹááťážááş…â – áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áááş ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźáááťááşááᯠááąáŹááşáááşááźááşááá° (á¤ááá ášá áážááˇáşááááşáááŻááşááąáŹ ááźááşááá°)ááťáŹá¸ áááĄáąáŹááşáááşá¸ ááźáŻááŻááşáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ ááźá áşááááşá
- â…áááşáá°áážááˇáşáááᯠáááşáááŻááşáááˇáş áááşáááˇáş á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşáááᯅ⠖ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźáááťááşá á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááťááşááŤáááşááááşá á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááťááşáááş áá°áá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááş (áááŻáˇ) áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áá áşááŻá áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸áážááˇáş áááşáááŻááşááááşá
- â… áá°áá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááşá áĄáááąááᯠáá áşááŹá áąáááş áĄááźáśááźááˇáşááąáŹáşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸á áááŻáá°áážááˇáş á ááşááťáĽáşá¸ááąáŹ á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááźááşá¸áááş áááŻáá°á áĄáááąááᯠáááááŻááşá áąáááşáᯠááááťááşáážááˇáşááąáŹáşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸á áááŻáááŻáˇááŻáśááźááşáááş áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áážáááťááşáážááˇáşááąáŹáş áááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸â – áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áááş áá áşááŹá áąáááŻáááˇáş áááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážáááááş (áááŻáˇ) áááşá¸á ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźáááťááşáááş (áá áşáááşááŹá¸áááŻ) áá áşááŹá áąááááˇáşáááşááᯠááááźáŽá¸ááŹá¸ ááźá áşááááşá
ááźá˝ááşá¸ááťááşááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźááşá¸
áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźááˇáş á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááśáááŤá ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááą (ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸)áá˝ááş ááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸áááşá ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáážá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááźáąáŹááşááŻááž áááşáááˇáşáĽáááąáĄáá˝ááşááᯠáááŻááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻáááŻááşáááşá áĽáááŹáĄááąááźááˇáşá ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźáááťááşáááş áážááşáááşááźáŽá¸ áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áĄáá˝ááş áĄááťááŻá¸áážááááşáááŻááąáŹ áĄááťááşááźááˇáş ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáááş (ááŻááşá ááá)á áááŻáˇáááŻááş ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźááťááşá áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻáááş áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻ áĄáŹá¸áááşá¸áááşá (ááŻááşá áá )
áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááśáĽáááąáĄááźáąáááşááŤá
áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áááşááž áážáąáˇááąáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąáá°ááąáŹááşáá áşááŻááŻáśá¸ááᯠááąá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááŻááşá áááşááąáŤáşáááŻááşáááşá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááśááąáŤáş áĄááźáąáááşááźááşá¸áážáááážááážááˇáş áááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááťááąáážáŻááᯠááźááşá¸ááťááşááŻááşáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşááᯠáááá áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááśáĽáááąá ááąá¸ááŹá¸áááş (ááŻááşá ááá)á áááŻáˇáĄááźááş áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááśáĽáááąáá˝ááş ááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááááŻááşáá˝ááˇáş/ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸ááááşááŻáááşá¸ ááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸áááş (ááŻááşá áá(á)á áááá ááá)á ááąáŹááşáá áşáááşá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠáĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááťááŻá¸ááŽááťáąáŹáşáážáŻááážááᲠáááážáááşááąááźááşá¸áážáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáş áááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááťááąááŻáśáááş áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĄááźáąááśáĽáááąáážááˇáş ááááŻááşááŽááźáąáŹááşá¸áááŻáááşá¸ ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáş ááťá°áᏠáá áşááŻáĄááąááźááˇáş ááźááşá¸áááŻááťááş ááŻááşáááŻááşáááş (ááŻááşá áá áá áá ááá )á ááąáŹááşáááş ááŹáá˝ááş ááŻááśáážáŻ ááťá°ááŹáá áşááŻáážáŹ áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸á á áŽáááşááťááşááᯠáááşááťááşáááş áĄáááŻáˇáážáŹ áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áá˝ážááşááąáŹáşááťáŻááşááś á áŹááťá˝ááşááąáŹáş ááťážáąáŹááşááŹá¸áááŻááşááźááşá¸ ááźá áşáááşá
ááąá¸áááŻá¸ááş ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáážáŻ
âááąá¸áááŻá¸ááş ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáážáŻâ áááŻáááşáážáŹ áááŹá¸áá°ááźáŽá¸ ááąáŹáˇááşáá áşááąáŹááşá áşá áááá ááŻáážá áş áĄááşášáááááş áĄáážáŻá áŽáááşááťááşáá áşááŻá á áááşáááşááŽá¸áá˛áˇááąáŹ ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáážáŻ ááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸á áŽáááşááťááşáá˝ááş áááŹá¸áá°ááźáŽá¸á ááááşá¸á áŹá ááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááááşá¸áá áşááŻááşáááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąá áąááŹáá° áááşá¸ááááşá¸á áŹáĄááąááźááˇáş áĄááźáŻáááąáŹááąáŹááşáᏠ(ááťááˇáşááťáááşá) ááŻááşááąáŹááşáá˛áˇááźááşá¸ ááźá áşááŤá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááááŻááşáááˇáşáᯠááŻáśá¸ááźááşáááşá âááąá¸áááŻá¸ááş ááŹáá˝ááşááŻááśáážáŻâáááş áĄááşášáááááşáááŹá¸áá˝ááşáá˝ááş ááąáŤáşááąáŤááş áá˛áˇááąáŹáşáááşá¸ áááŻááŻááśáážáŻá ááźáąááźáąááźá áşááźá áşáážáááąáŹ ááźááşá¸áááŻááťááşááᯠáááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°áááşááž áážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş ááťá°ááŹááąáŹáşááąáŹááşááŹáá˝ááş áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻáááŻááşáááşá áááŹá¸áá°ááźáŽá¸ ááąáŹáˇááşáá áşááąáŹááşá áş ááźáąáŹááźáŹá¸áá˛áˇáááˇáş ááááşá¸á áŹááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá ááŹáááşáá°áážáŻá ááŹáááşááśáážáŻááᯠááąáŹáşááŻááşááźááááŻááşáááˇáş áááşá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážáŹ –
- ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşá áĄááąá¸ááŤáážáŻááᯠáááşá¸áááŻáˇá ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşááťáážáŻáĄáááŻááşá¸áá˝ááş áááşáááşááźáááźááşá¸á
- áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááᯠááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşáá˝ááş ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáááźááşá¸á
- ááŻáśááźááşá áááşááťáááąáŹ ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşáĄáááşá¸áĄááźá áşááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźááşá¸á
- ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááᯠá á áşááąá¸áĄáááşááźáŻáááş áááşá¸áááşá¸áĄáááˇáşááťáŹá¸ ááŹá¸áážáááźááşá¸á
- ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááᯠááťážááąááááˇáş áĄááťáááşáážááˇáşáĄááťážáĄááąá¸ááźáŽá¸áážáŻááᯠááąáŹáşááźááźááşá¸á
- á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááśááá°áááşááᯠáážááşááťááşááąáŹááşá¸ááśááźááşá¸á
- á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááśááá°á áážááşááťááşááᯠááŻááşááąáŹáşááąá¸ááŹá¸ááźááşá¸á
- ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááᯠááťážááąááŹáá˝ááş áážááşáááşááąáŹ áááşááźáááşááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźááşá¸á
- ááááşá¸ááŻááşááąáŹáşáááşááźááŹáá˝ááş áĄááťáááşáááŻááş áážááşáááşá á˝áŹ áááşááźááźááşá¸á
The application of Myanmarâs defamation laws in courts has further demonstrated that they do not conform with even the most basic of international standards. In particular, case law has shown that Myanmarâs defamation laws and their application.
Myanmar’s laws protect feelings rather than reputationsâŚ
Myanmar’s defamation laws have been used to punish statements of opinion rather than assertions of fact. Such opinions have been labelled âoffensiveâ and attacks âprovenâ simply through subjective criteria against which defendants are powerless to dispute.
âŚignore defencesâŚ
Even the limited defences included in the Penal Code provisions on defamation have sometimes been overlooked. As a result, defendants often rely on highlighting the prosecutionâs procedural mistakes such as the quality and quantity of evidence rather than focusing arguments on substantive defences.
âŚpunish criticism of public officials and politiciansâŚ
Powerful people, including public officials, politicians, religious leaders, military, and business leaders are supported by prosecutors and the police to bring suits against those who criticise them. Neither the government nor the judiciary encourage such powerful people to tolerate greater criticism in the interests of democracy.
âŚdelayâŚ
Cases progress in an extremely slow and burdensome manner both before and during court trials, resulting in significant damage to the defendantâs financial and mental health.
âŚalways apply punitive sanctionsâŚ
Verdicts are usually made in favour of the complainant and result in highly punitive criminal sanctions for the defendant. Although the law provides for both fines and imprisonment, courts choose the harsher sentence.
âŚand show no signs of reflecting the transition to democracy and judicial independence
There is little evidence that courts have begun to shift their role during the transition to democracy. For example, courts do not seem to reflect upon the compatibility of past laws and precedents set under previous authoritarian governments, in light of the rights provided for in the new constitution, such as the principle of liberty.
Although Myanmarâs legal framework clearly favours the complainant, legal defence strategies are also weak. Many lawyers are unfamiliar with defamation laws or using rights-based legal strategies to defend their clients and rely only on a strategy of arguing that the defendant did not make the allegedly defamatory statement. Below are several useful but in Myanmar largely unused legal strategies, each of which is a common legal strategy in countries with similar legal systems.
Proving every element of the crime
Penal Code Article 499 defines defamation as containing five elements. A prosecutor should prove each of these five elements beyond a reasonable doubt in order to secure a conviction. One defence strategy is therefore to cast doubt on any of these elements:
- âWhoeverâŚâ: The defendant must be an individual person.
- ââŚby words either spoken or intended to be read, or by signs or by visible representationsâŚâ: The defendant must have intended for the content to be shared with others.
- ââŚmakes of publishesâŚâ: The defendant must have actively shared the content with third parties.
- ââŚany imputation concerning any personâŚâ: The content must include an allegation and it must relate either to an individual or an associationâs business.
- ââŚintending to harm, or knowing or having reason to believe that such imputation will harm, the reputation of such person.â: The defendant must have intended to harm or known the content would harm.
Using exceptions
The Penal Code includes exceptions which are defences against allegations of defamation. A defence strategy could use these exceptions under any of Myanmarâs six defamation laws. For example, the defence can show that the content is both true and in the public good (Article 499). Or that the harm was slight (Article 95).
Constitutionalism
Defence lawyers could challenge the entire defamation framework. Myanmarâs 2008 Constitution includes a right to dispute the constitutionality of defamation laws and their application (Article 323). It also provides protection of rights included in the Constitution (Articles 18c, 296, 378). A defence strategy could argue that defamation laws and their application are unconstitutional because they unreasonably restrict freedom of expression (Articles 6, 354, 365). Another defence strategy could be to obtain a writ from the Supreme Court to quash a court decision.
The Reynolds defence
The âReynolds defenceâ was created by Justice Lord Nicholls in a 1999 English judgement in which he decided that newspapers cannot be held liable for defamation if they have behaved responsibly, even if the information published later turns out to be false. Although the âReynolds defenceâ was created in an English court, its substantive argument could be used in legal strategising by defence lawyers. Justice Lord Nicholls said that newspapers can demonstrate responsibility by:
- Reflecting the seriousness of the information in their decision-making
- Showing the public interest in the information
- Using reliable sources of information
- Taking steps to verify that information
- Showing the urgency of sharing the information
- Asking alleged persons for comment
- Publishing alleged personsâ comments
- Using the right tone in sharing the information
- Honest timing of the publication.
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá áááşáááˇáşáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşááŹáĽáááąáááťáž áááŻááşááśáááŹáážá áĄááźáąááśáĄááťááŻáśá¸ááąáŹ á áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááŻááşááŽáážáŻááážáááąá áááşáááşá¸áĄáááˇáşááŻáśá¸áĽáááąááźá áşááąáŹ ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸áĽáááą (ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááą) áá˝ááş áááŻááşááŽáážáŻ áĄáááşá¸áááşáážáááąáŹáşáááşá¸ áĄáááşá¸áĄááťááşá¸ááťážáᏠááźá áşááąáááşá
None of Myanmarâs defamation laws conform to even the most basic of international standards. The oldest law, the Penal Code, has some conformity, but only to a very limited extent.
ááááşááśáááŹá
áśáážáŻááşá¸ International standard | ááźá
áşáážáŻ áááŻááşáᏠáĽáááą Penal Code | áĄáŽáááşáááąáŹáá
áşáááşáá˝ááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááąá¸áĽáááą Electronic Transactions Law | áááşáá˝ááşááąá¸áĽáááą Telecommunications Law | áĄááťááˇáşááťááşááźá
áŹá¸áážáŻáááŻááşááťááşááąá¸ áĽáááą Anti-corruption Law | ááááşá¸ ááŽááŽáᏠáĽáááą News Media Law | ááááşááśááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á ááŻáášáááŻááşáááŻááşááŹáá˝ááş áááşáážáŻáážááˇáş ááŻáśááźáŻáśáážáŻááᯠááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸ááąá¸ áĽáááą Law Protecting the Security and Privacy of Citizens |
áĄáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻááťááş – Definition | ||||||
áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻáĄáááášááŹááşáá˝ááˇáşáááŻááŹá¸áááşá – Defamation is defined | â | â | â | â | â | â |
áááşáááşááťááşáááşá¸áážáŻ – Scope | ||||||
ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻááźááşá¸áááźáŻáááŻááşá፠– Public bodies are not able to bring suits | â | â | â | â | â | â |
ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄááŹáážáááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşáááŻááşááśááąá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş ááąáááşáážáŻáĄáŹá¸áááŻáááŻáááşá¸ááśááááş – Public officials and politicians must tolerate greater criticism | â | â | â | â | â | â |
ááŻááťáąááŹáá˝ááşááźááşá¸ – Defences | ||||||
áĄáážááşáááŹá¸áááş ááźáŽá¸ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááąáŹ ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáážáŻ ááźá áşáááş – Truth is an absolute defence | Partial â | â | â | Partial â | â | â |
áĄááźááşáááąáŹááŹá¸áĄáá°áĄáááťáŹá¸áááş ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááąáŹááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáážáŻ ááźá áşáááş – Opinion is an absolute defence | Partial â | â | â | â | â | â |
ááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááŽááťáąáŹáşááąáŹ ááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááźááşá¸áááş ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáážáŻ ááźá áşáááş – Reasonable publication is a defence | Partial â | â | â | â | â | â |
ááźá áşáááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş ááŻá áŹá¸ááźááşáááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ – Sanctions and remedies | ||||||
ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşáááˇáş áááŹá¸ááážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááą – Civil law, not criminal law | â | â | â | â | â | â |
ááąáŹááşáááşááᯠáááşáááś (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ – Imprisonment not allowed or used | â | â | â | â | â | â |
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽááŻááşáááşá¸á ááşááťáŹá¸áááŻáĄáŹáááśáááŻááşáááşáĄáááŻáˇáážáŹ áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąáážááˇáşááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸áááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşáážááˇáş ááŻááşáááášááŹáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸áááŻáˇáĄááźáŹá¸áážááşáááşááąáŹááťáááşáážááážáŻáážááááş áááŻáĄááşááąáááşá áážááşáááşááąáŹááşá¸áá˝ááşááąáŹ ááťáááşáážááážáŻáááŻáááşáážáŹ áá°ááŻáážáĄáŹááŹáááŻááşááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááąáááşááźááşá¸ááŹáááşááśá áąááźááşá¸ á áááşáááŻáˇááźáŻááŻááşááąáŹáĄá፠ááźá áşáááşááąá¸áááśáááźááşá¸áááşááźá áşáááşá ááášááŹááŻáśá¸áĄáááŻááşá¸áĄááŹáĄá áááşááśááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááťáááşáážááážáŻááᯠáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠâáááŻááşááśáááŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸âáĄááźá áş áááážáááźáááşá
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áážááˇáşáááşáááşááąáŹáááŻááşááśáááŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŻááááášá áĄááźááşááźááşáááŻááşááŹáá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááźáąááźáŹá áŹáááşá¸(UDHR) áážááˇáşááĄáááşáááşáážááˇáşáááŻááşááśááąá¸áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸áááŻááşáᏠáááŻááşááśáááŹáááááŹááş (ICCPR) áááŻáˇáĄááŤáĄáááş áááşááĄáááşá¸ááźá áşááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹ áĄááąáŤáş áĄááźáąááźáŻ áááşááąáŹááşááŹá¸ááźááşá¸ááźá áşáááşá
áááşá áŻáážá áşááąáŤááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹáĄáá˝ááşá¸ áááŻá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááŻááşááśáááŹáááŹá¸ ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá˝ááˇáşáááŻáážááşá¸áááşá¸áá˛áˇááźááááŻá ááášááŹáˇááŻááááášááá˛áˇáááŻáˇ áááŻááşááśáááŹáĄá ááŻá¸ááĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááááşá¸ áá˝ááˇáşáááŻáážááşá¸áááşá¸áá˛áˇááźáááşá áĄááťááŻáˇááąáŹ á áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááá ááŻáážá áşá ááášááŹáˇááŻááááášááĄáá˝áąáá˝áąááŻáśá¸áááşááťááş áĄáážááş áá áĄá áĄááťááşá¸ááťáŻááşáážáŻááźáŻáá˛áˇáááşá
áááŻááşááśáááŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááşááąáŹááşááąááąáŹ áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşá ááášá áĄááťááŻáˇáážáŹ –
- áááŻáĄááşááźáŽá¸ááááąáŹááşáᏠáĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽááťážááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááźá áşáĄáąáŹááş ááźááşáááşááąá¸áá˝á˛ááźááŹááşá¸ááąá¸ ááąáŹ áĄá ááŻá¸ááážááˇáş áĽáááąááźáŻááąá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇ
- áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááźáŽá¸ááźáŽá¸ááťááşááťááş ááźá áşáááŻááşáááťáž ááťá˛áˇáá˝ááşááŹáá˝ááşáááş áĽáááąáááŻááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááááˇáş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸
- áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áá°ááąáŹ áááŻááşáááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸áááş ááźááşáá°áˇ áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááźá áşááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááąááťáŹáĄáąáŹááşááźáŻááŻááşááąá¸ááááˇáş áá˛áááşáá˝á˛áˇáážááˇáş áĄá ááŻá¸ááážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸
áĄáąáŹááşááąáŤáşááźá፠áááŻááşááśáááŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸áááŻááşá¸áááş áááşáážáááźáŽá¸ááŹá¸ áááŻááşááśááᏠáĽáááąá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á ááááťááąáŹ áážááşá¸áááşá¸ áá˝ááˇáşáááŻááťááşáááşááźá áş áááşá á áśáážáŻááşá¸áá áşááŻááťááşá¸á áŽááᯠáĄáážá áşááťáŻááş ááźáŻááŹá¸ááźááşá¸ááźá áşááąáŹáşáááşá¸ áĄááąá¸á áááş áážááşá¸áááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠá áááşáááşá áŹá¸áážáŻáážáááąáŹ áááşáááˇáş áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áááŻáááᯠááąáŹááşááśáˇááąá¸áááŻááşááŤáááşá
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áĄáááşáá˝ááşááąáŤáşááźáá˛áˇááąáŹ áĄáááˇáş ááŻáśá¸áááˇáşáááşá¸á á áşááťááşááźááˇáş áááŻááşááŽááááşá ááźá áşáááŻááşáááťáž ááťá áşáá áşá á˝áŹááźááˇáş ááąá¸áá˝á˛ááŹá¸ááááşá áááŻáˇáážáᏠáááşá¸áááŻáˇááᯠáááşáá˝áąáˇááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááŹáá˝ááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááťáŻááşáááŻááşáááˇáşáááş ááźááşá¸áááźáŻáááŻááşáááş ááźá áşáááşá
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áĄáąáŹááşááąáŤáşááźá፠ááąáŹáşááźááťááşááťáŹá¸ áá˝ááşáᏠáááşááąáŹááşáááˇáşáááşá áááşá¸áááŻáˇáážáŹ
- áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąáŹ
- áĄááťááşáĄáááşááážááşáááşááąáŹ
- áááááŻááşáážáŻááźá áşá áąááąáŹ
- áááááŻááşáážáŻáááş áá áşáŚá¸áá áşááąáŹááşáááŻááşáááášááŹáᏠááźá áşá áááşááááŻáááŻáááşáážáŹ ááąáŹáşááźááťááşáá áşááŻáááŻáĄááźáŹá¸ áá°ááťáŹá¸á ááźááşááźááşá¸ áááŻáˇáááŻááş ááźáŹá¸áá ááźááşá¸áážáááááşá
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşááŹáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áá°áá
áşáŚá¸áááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠáááŻá¸ááŤá¸á
á˝áŹ áááááŻááşá
áąááąáŹáĄáááŻááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáşáá˝ááşáᏠáááşááąáŹááş ááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááźááşá¸ááźáŻáááˇáşáááşá
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ ááᯠáá°ááŻáášáááŻááşáá
áşáŚá¸áááŻááşáááášááŹáĄáŹá¸ áááŻá¸áá˝áŹá¸á
á˝áŹ áááááŻááşá
áąáááˇáş áĄááťááşáĄáááşáážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąáŹ áĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźááşá¸áᯠáĄááąáŹááşá¸ááŻáśá¸ áĄáážá
áşááťáŻááşáááŻááş áááşá
áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşááŹáĽáááąá áááşáááşáááş áááşáááŻááşáážáŻáážááááˇáş áááşáááşá áĄáááŻááşá¸áĄááŹáááŹááĄáááŻááşá¸ááźá áşáááşá
ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááž áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáááş áá˝ááˇáşáááźáŻáááˇáş
áááşá¸áá˝ááş áááşááźáŽá¸ááŹáááťáŹá¸á áá˝ážááşááąáŹáşá áááŹá¸á áŽáááşááąá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇáážááˇáş á á áşáááşáááŻáˇáááşá¸ááŤáááşáááşá
ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áááŻááşáááŻááşááąáŹááŻááşáááášááŹáá°á ááážáááąá ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááťááŻá¸áĄááźááşáááşáá˝ááş ááťááşáááŤááąáŹ ááźááşáá˛áˇáĄá áŻáĄááąá¸ááťáŹá¸ááźá áşááźáŽá¸áááŹáá˝ááşáááş á áááşááśá áŹá¸áážáŻáááŻááşá¸áááŻááşááŹáážááˇáş áá˝áąááźáąá¸áĄá áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááážáááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáş áááşá¸ áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áááŻáˇáá˝ááş ááŻááşáááášáᏠááážáááŤá ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸ áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş ááŹáááźáŹáážááşá á˝áŹ áážááážááˇáşááźáŽá¸ááźá áşááŹááĄáážááşááááş ááŻááşáááášááŹááŻáááŻáááťážááş áááŻáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸áááŻáˇááᯠáá˝ááşáá˛ááąááąáŹ ááąáŤááşá¸ááąáŹááşááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáş ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşááťáážááşáá° á áŽááŽááŹááťáŹá¸á ááŻááş áááášááŹáááşááźá áşáááşá áááŻáˇáĄááźááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻááźááşá¸áááş áĄááťáŹá¸ ááźááşáá°á ááášááŹááᯠááźáŻááşá¸ááŽá¸ááźááşá¸áááşááźá áşááŤáááşá
áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áĄá áŻáĄááąá¸á áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáááşáááŻááŤá áá°áááŻáˇáááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááťááşáááŻááąáááşááśáááźááşá¸ááž ááŹáá˝ááşáááŻááźááşá¸ áᏠááźá áşáááŻááşááťáąááťáŹá¸áááşá á ááŻá¸áá˝áśáá˝ááşááŹáĄááźááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸áážáŻááŽáááŻáˇ áŚá¸áááşááąáááşá
ááŻááşááášááŻááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááşášááąáááťáŹá¸áááŻáĄáááąááťááşááá
á¤áĄááťááşáá˝ááş áĄááśááťáŹá¸á ááŹááŹááąá¸ áááşášááąáááťáŹá¸ááĄááťááŻá¸ááŹá¸ááąá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĄáážááşááśááááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áá˝á˛áˇá ááşá¸ááŻáśáĽáááąáááŻáˇ ááŤáááşáááşá
ááźááşáá°áˇáááşáááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áá˛áˇáááŻáˇáááş ááŻááşááášááŻááťáŹá¸á áááşášááąáááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááŻááşáááášááŹááážáááąá áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áážáŹ ááŻááşáááášááŹáááŻáááşáážáŹ ááźááşáá˛áˇ áááąáŹááźá áşááźáŽá¸ áĄááťááŻá¸áĄááźááşááááŻááąáŹ áá˝ááşá¸áĄáŹá¸áááşá¸ááážááááŹáá˝ááşáážáŻááąá¸áááş á áááşáááŻááşá¸áááŻááşááŹááąáŹáşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸á áá˝áąááźáąá¸áĄááťááŻá¸ á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąáŹáşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ ááážáááąá
ááŻááşááášááŻááťáŹá¸á áááşášááąáááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄáááąááťááşáááşáᯠá á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááťááşáááş áááźáŹáááááŻáááᯠááźááŹáĄáŹááŹáážáááąáŹáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá ááąáŤááşá¸ááąáŹááşáážáŻáĄááźáąáŹááşá¸ áááŹá¸áááşááąáááşááźááşá¸ááᯠááŻáśá¸áá˝ááşáááˇáş ááŻááşáááşááťáŹá¸áááş ááźá áşáááşá
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áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áĄááźáŹá¸áááşáážáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ (ááźááşáá°áˇááŻáśááááş) áááş ááŹáááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş ááąáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áááŻáááŻáááŻáááşá¸ááśáááˇáşáááşá
áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áĄááźáŹá¸áááşáážáŹá¸áá° áá áşáŚá¸áááŻáááşáážáŹ áá°áááş áĄááťáŹá¸ ááźááşáá°áááážáá áąáááŻááşááąáŹ ááŻááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáá°ááťáŹá¸ ááźá áş áááşá ááŻáśá áśáĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş á áŹááąá¸áááŹá ááŽááááŹáážááşá áĄáŹá¸áá áŹá¸áááŹá¸á ááŹááŹááąá¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááąáŹááş áážááˇáş á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ ááŻááşáááşá¸áážááşááźáŽá¸ááťáŹá¸áááŻáˇááźá áş áááşá áá°áááŻáˇáááşáĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°á á áááşáááşá áŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşááźáá
áááŻáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááşáážáŹá¸ááąáŹáá°áážáŻáĄááźáąáĄááąáá áşáááşááᯠáááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážá áááŻááşáááŻááşááŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ááźá áşáááşá áááŻááşááśááąá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸áááşá¸áá° ááźááşáá°áˇááŻáśááááşááźá áşááąáŹ áááŻáá°áááŻáˇáááşáááşá¸ áááşá¸áááŻáˇáá ááŹá¸á áĄááźáŻáĄáá°ááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáşáá˝ááş áĄááźá áşáážáŹááśáááźááşá¸áááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹáĄááźááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸áážáŻ áážááˇáş áááŤáááśáĄáá˝ááşááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹ ááąáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áážááááşááᯠááááťááşáážááˇáş áááŻáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˝áąá¸ááťááşáá˛áˇáá°ááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşááźáááşá
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ááŻááťáąááŻááśáážáŻááťáŹá¸áááş áááááŻááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş áá°ááááˇáş áááŹá¸áĽáááąááŹáááşááᯠáážáąáŹááşáááş áááŹá¸áááşááťážáąáŹááşáá˛ááťááşááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşáááşá áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áá áşááŻáśá¸áá˝ááş áááŹá¸ááś (ááŻááťáąáá°)áá áşáŚá¸áááş áá°áˇáĄáŹá¸á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááŹá¸ááąáŹá á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááťááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŻááśááťáąááááŻááşááááŻá áááşááźááş á á˝á˛ááťááşáááşáááŻááş áááşá áááŻáˇáááşá¸áááŻááş á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááťááşááťáŹá¸áážááşáááşá áąááŹáá° áááŹá¸ááś áĄááąááźááˇáş ááŹáááşááážáááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááŻááśááźááşá¸áááŻáááŻááşáááşá áĄáąáŹááşááŤááŻááťáą áážáŻááťáŹá¸ áĄáá˝ááş áááŹá¸ááśáááş ááŻáśáážááşáĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáşáááşááą áĄáááŻááşáĄáᏠááźááááş ááŹáááşáážáááąáááşá
áĄáážááşáááŹá¸áááş ááźáŽá¸ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááąáŹ ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáážáŻááźá áşáááş
áá°áá áşáŚá¸áááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠáááŻááşáááŻááşááąáŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşáá áşááŻáááş ááźážáąáŹááşáááˇáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźááşá¸ áááŻááşááŻáśááťážááźááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ áááźá áşáá˝áŹá¸áááŻááşááťáąá áĄáááąááťááşááąáŹ ááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşáá áşáᯠáááŻáááşáážáŹ ááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááź áááşááźáąáááąá¸áááŻááşáááˇáş áĄááťááşáĄáááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąáŹ áĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááźááşá¸áá áşáááşááźá áşáááşá
áááŹá¸ááśááťáŹá¸áááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá áĄááťááşáĄáááşáĄáááŻááşáĄáᏠááŻááşááąáŹáşááźááşá¸áážáŹ áážáŹá¸áááşááŻáááşááąáááźáááŻááşáááťááşá¸ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáážááˇáşáááş áááşá áááşáááˇáşáĄááŤááťážááŹáááşáááśáá áááŹá¸ááźááŻááşá ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááş ááťáąááážáŻáááş áĄáážááşáááŹá¸ááźá áşááźáŽá¸ááááşá¸áááşááŻáśá¸áááźáŽá¸ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááąáŹ ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşááźááşá¸áááş ááźá áşáááşá (áááŻááşáááşá¸áá°áááŹá¸áááŻáážáᏠáááşá¸á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááťááşááťáŹá¸ ááážááşáááşááźáąáŹááşá¸ áááşááąááźááááş ááźá áşáááşá)
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áááŹá¸ááśááž áĄááźáŹá¸áá áşá áŻáśáá áşáŚá¸á áĄáááŻááᯠáááşááśááąáŤáşááźááźáŽá¸ááááşá¸ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşáááş áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áˇáĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááźá áşááŹááááŹá¸ááśááž áááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááᯠááąáŹááşááśááŹá¸ááźááşá¸ ááážáááźáąáŹááşá¸ áááᏠáážááşá¸áááşá¸ááąááŤá áááŹá¸ááśáĄááąááźááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááŹáááşáá°áááş ááááˇáşááťáąá
á áŹáááşáááşá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşááááşá¸áĄá áŽáááşááśáá°áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááş áĄá áŽáááşááśááąáŹ áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááŹáážáŹ áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá° áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááźá áşááŤá ááźááşáá°áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸á áĄááźááşááťáŹá¸ áĄáááŻááťáŹá¸ áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááŻááźáŻáśááŻáśááąáŹáşááźáááş áá°ááŻááž ááťážáąáŹáşáááˇáşááŹá¸ááźááźáŽá¸ááááŻáááŻáˇááŻááşááąáŹááşááŹáá˝ááş ááááşá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááťááşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸ááž áááşá¸áááŻáˇáááŻááşááᯠáááşá¸áá˝áŹááźáŹá¸ááŹá¸ááŹá¸áááş (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸á áážááşáááşáážáŻááᯠá á áşááąá¸áááşáááŻáá° ááťážáąáŹáşáááˇáşáááŹá¸ááźááŤá
ááŽáááŻáááąá ᎠáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá°áĄááťáŹá¸ ááźáąáŹáááŻááąááźáááˇáş áĄááąáŹááşá¸áĄáááŻá¸ áážá áşááťááŻá¸ááŻáśá¸ááᯠááźáŹá¸áááááşáážáŹ áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áˇ áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄááŤáĄáááşááźá áşáááşá ááťá˝ááşá¸ááťááşáĄáááˇáş ááźá áşááąáŹ ááááşá¸á áŹáááŹá áĄáážááşááášáááŹáážáŹ ááźá áşáááŻááşáááťáž ááťážááážáŻááźá áşá áąáááş áááˇáşááťááşáááş áĄáááŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááááááşááźááťááş áá˝ááşááŤáááşá áąááźááşá¸ ááźá áşáááşá
áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááĄáááŻáĄáŹá¸ áááşááśááąáŤáşááźááźááşá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááŹáá˝ááşááťáąááážáŻáááş áá˝á áşáᏠáážááˇáş ááąáˇ(á áş)áá˝ááşáááŻáˇáá˝ááş áá°áĄááťáŹá¸ááž ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸ ááźááşáááşáá°á¸áá°ááťážááąááźááşá¸ ááźá áşá ááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááŻáááŻáááşá ááşáážáŻáážá ááŹáááşá
áááąáŹáááŻá¸ááźááˇáşááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠáĄááŹáĄáá˝ááş
áĄáážáŻáá˛áˇáĄáážááşáá˛áˇááźááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáááˇáşááááşá¸áááŻááźááˇáşááąááźááşá¸áááŻáá°ááŽááźááşá¸á ááŻááşááąááąá¸ááźááşá¸á áááşááśááąáŤáşááźááźááşá¸áááŻáˇáááŻááźáŻááŻááşááááźááşá¸áááş âáááąáŹáááŻá¸ááźááˇáş ááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááźááşá¸âáááşááźá áşáááşá
áááŹá¸ááśááťáŹá¸áááş ááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááťááşááᯠááąá¸áá° (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áĄááşááŽáᏠ(áááŻáˇáááŻááş) ááŻááşááąáá°ááťáŹá¸áááŻááşáááˇáşáĄááźááşá áááşá¸ áááŻáˇáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠáá°ááŽááťážááąááąá¸ááŹááąáŹááşááąááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááááá˛áˇááťážááş (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áááŻááťážááąááááˇáş ááááşá¸áĄááťááşáĄáááş ááᯠááŻáśááźááşááááˇáş áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸ááźááťááş áážáááąáá˛áˇááťážááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááŹáááşááśáááş ááááŻáĄááşááŤá
áááŻááŹáááşááśáááşááááŻáĄááşáááˇáşáĄáá˛áá˝ááş áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááŹááᯠááťáŻááşáááŻááşá á˝ááşáááşáááş áĄáááşá¸ááášáááážááááˇáş ááŽáááŻááşááŹáááááşá¸á áŹááąáŹááşá¸ááťáá° áážááˇáşááźáŹá¸ááśááŻáášáááŽááťáŹá¸ááźá áşááźáááˇáş ááŻáśáážáááşááŻááşáááşá¸áážááˇáşáĄááşááŹáááşáááşááąáŹááşáážáŻáĄááąáŹááşáĄááśáˇááźáŻáá°(ISPs) ááťáŹá¸áááşá¸ áĄááŤáĄáááş ááźá áşááŤáááşá
áá°áážáŻáá˝ááşáááşá áĄááşááŹáááş áááşááşáááŻááş áážááˇáş ááááşá¸á áŹááŻááşáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá°ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹ ááŤáááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááąáˇáážááááşááááŻáˇááąáŹáş áááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄáááş áĄááťááŻáˇááŹááťážááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááŹáááşáážááááşá ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áá áşáá˝ááş ááŹáááşáá°áážáŻáááş ááťá áşáá áşááťááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸áááşá áááŻáááŻáˇáááŻááşááŤá ááááşá¸ááźááˇáşááťáŽááąá¸áá˝ááş ááŤáááş ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááá°áá°áááŻááşá¸áááş áááşááŹááááşá¸ááťáŻááş ááŹáááŻááşááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáş ááźá áşáááşá áĽáááŹ- áĄáááşá ááááşá¸á áŹááąáŹááşá¸áá°áá˝ááş ááŹáááşáážááááşáááŻááŤá áĄááşááŽááŹááŻááşáá°áááş ááááşá¸áĄááŻááşáááŻááşá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááááşá¸á áŹááąáŹááşá¸áá°á áĄáááşááźáŻááťááşááá°áááş áááŻááŹááááˇáşáááşá ááąáˇ(á áş)áá˝ááşáááş ááŹáááşáážááááşáááŻááŤá áááşá¸áááş áááşááŹááąáŹ ááááşá¸áááŻááşá¸áĄáá˝ááşá áŽá á áşáááşáááŻááŹááąáááşá
áááąáŹáá°ááŽááťááşáááş ááźáŽá¸ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááąáŹ ááŹáá˝ááşááťáąááážáŻ ááźá áşáááş
áá°áá áşáŚá¸áááş áááşá¸áááŻááşáááŻááşá áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąáŹáĄááťááşáĄáááşááťáŹá¸ ááŤáááşáááˇáş ááŻááşááźááşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşáĄáŹá¸ (á ááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááźááˇáşááźá áşá áą á ááźáŻáá° ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááťááşááźááˇáşááźá áşá áąááĄáá°áĄááŹááźááˇáşááźá áşá áą)ááąáŹááşááśáˇááąá¸ááźááşá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áá áşáááşá¸áááşá¸ááźááˇáş áááşááśááźááşá¸ááᯠâáááąáŹáá°ááŽááźááşá¸â áᯠáááşáážááşáááąáááşá
áááŹá¸ááśááťáŹá¸áááş áĄáááşá ááááşáááşá¸á áááąáŹáá°ááŽáážáŻááźáŻáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ááźá áşááąáŹ áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸áááˇáş áĄááťááşáĄáááş áĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááźáąáŹáááŻáážáŻ áĄáá˝ááşáá° áááŹá¸ááśááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş ááŹáááşáá°áááşááááˇáşááťáąá
áá°áĄááťáŹá¸áááş áááźáŹáááááŻáááᯠáááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄáŹá¸ááźáąáŹááŹá¸ááąáŹ áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááŹááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźááşáááşááźáąáŹá ááźááşáááş ááąá¸áááşááźáááşá áĽáááŹ- ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááŽááŽááŹááťáŹá¸áááş ááŽááťážáážáŻáážáá áąáááş ááááşá¸áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄáᏠááźá áşááąáŹ ááŻáášáááŻááşááśááž áááąáŹááŹá¸áážááşááťááş ááąáŹááşá¸ááśááąáˇáážáááźáááşá áĄáááşá ááᯠááááşá¸áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄáᏠááźá áşááąáŹáá°ááťáŹá¸á ááááşá¸áážáŹá¸ááᯠááąá¸ááźááşá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áĄáááşááźáŻááźááşá¸ááźáŻááŻááşááźáŽá¸ááŤá áááşá¸áááş áááąáŹáá° áááŻááşááťáąáŹááźááşá¸ ááźá áşáááˇáşáĄáá˝ááş ááąáŹááşáá˝ááş ( ááąá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹáşááźááąáŹááááşá¸áááŹá¸ áááŻáˇáááŻááş ááááşá¸ááŹááĄáŹá¸ ) áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááááááŻááşááŤá
ááźáŽá¸ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááźáŽá¸ áĄáááşáĄáá˝áąá¸ááźááˇáşáážáŽááąáŹáĄáá˝ááˇáşáá°á¸ááśááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸
áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááźáąáŹáááŻáááŻááşááźááşá¸áááş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áážááˇáş áá˝ážááşááąáŹáşáá˛áˇáááŻáˇááąáŹ áá˝áąá¸ááąáŹááşááśáĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄááźááşáĄáážááşááťážáąáŹááşáá˛áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸ááźááŹá áĄáá˝ááşáĄááąá¸ááŤáááşá áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áážááˇáş áá˝áąá¸ááąáŹááşááśáĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááźáąáŹ áááŻáááťáž áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááŹááťáŹá¸ááᯠâááŻáśá¸áááťá˝ááşá¸ááťááşááážáááąáŹ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáá°á¸ááśááźááşá¸â áĄááźáąáĄááąáá áşáááşááᯠááąá¸áĄááşááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ááááşá¸ááᯠáĄááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş ááŻááśá á˝ááşá¸áĄáŹá¸áᯠááááŹá¸ááźáááşá
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áĄáááˇáşááźáąáŹááˇáşáááŻááąáŹáş áá˛á áĄá ááŻá¸ááážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áˇ áááşáááşá¸ áĄááŹáážáááťáŹá¸á ááŤáááşáááşáááşáážáŻáááş áááŹá¸ááśáĄáá˝ááş áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ áááťážááá˛á áááşá¸áááş áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá° ááášááŹáá˝áąááᯠáĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°áĄááťááŻá¸á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸áááŻááşáᲠááźáŻááşá¸ááŽá¸ááźááşá¸ááźá áşááŹááá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠá ááŻá¸ááááşááźáąáŹááşáááˇáşáá˝ááşááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻáá áşááŻáááşá¸ ááźá áşááŹá áąáááŻááşááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáş ááźá áşáááşá
ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹááźá áşáááşááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş á áśáážáŻááşá¸ ááźááˇáşááŹá¸áááˇáş áááşááąááźááťááşáááŻáĄááşáááş
ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááąáŹáĄááŤáá˝ááş áĄá ááŻá¸ááážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸ááž áááşááąááźáááşááŹáááşáááŻáá°ááŹá¸ááááşá áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻáááş ááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááŽááťáąáŹáşááąáŹ ááśááááťáŹá¸ ááźá áşáááˇáş –
- áĄááťááşáĄáááşáĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááźáąáŹáááŻáážáŻáááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸
- áááŹá¸ááśáááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸áááŻáááááş (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áážááşáááşááźááşá¸ááᯠáĄáááşááźááşáá˛áˇ áĄáááĄáážááşáááźáŻááźááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ááźáááźááşá¸ááźá áşááźáąáŹááşá¸
- ááŻááşááąáŤáşáááşááźááťááşáááş áááŻááşáááşá¸áá°á ááŻááşáááášááŹááᯠáááááŻááşá áąáááşáááşáá˝ááşááťááşááźááˇáşááźáŻááŻááşááźáąáŹááşá¸
á áááşáááŻáˇáááşááťáąáŹáşáá˝ááşááźáŽá¸ áááşááąááźááááşááźá áşáááşá
áĄááťááşá¸ááťááźááşá¸áááş áááşáááˇáşáĄááŤááťáž áááˇáşááťáąáŹáşáážááşáááşáážáŻááážá
áĄá
ááŻá¸ááážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸á áááşááąááźááźáŽá¸ááąáŹ áááááŻááşáážáŻááźááşá¸áááşáááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááŻááşáááášáᏠáááááŻááşáážáŻáááşááťážáĄáááážááá˛áˇáááş ááᯠáááŻáááźáŻáᲠáááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸á áááŹá¸ááźááŻááşááźá
áşáá°áĄáŹá¸ ááąáŹááşáááşááťáážááşááźááşá¸áááş áááşáááˇáşáĄááŤááťážáááşááśáááŻááşáá˝ááşááážáááąá
ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá áşááťáááşá áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽáá˝ááşááźáŽá¸ áááŻáĄááşáááşáᯠáááşáážááşáá˛áˇááźáááşá áĄáááˇáşááźáąáŹááˇáşáááŻááąáŹáş áĄáááąááťááşááśááá°áááş áááşá¸á áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻááᯠáááşáááŻááş áááŻááşáááŻááşááźááşá¸áá°ááąáŹ áĄááźááşá¸áááşáážáŻáážááááˇáş ááźáąáážááşá¸áá˛áˇááźááźááşá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáážáŻáĄáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşá áĄááąá¸ááá ášá ááźá áşáá˛áˇáááşááá ááŽáááŻáááąá ááááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸ááá° áááŻáĄááźááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźáąáážááşá¸áááş áĄááźááşá¸ááááşááąáŹ ááášáááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸áááŻáááşááąáŹááşáá˛áˇááź ááźáŽá¸ááźá áşáááşá áĄááźááşá¸áááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻ ááážáááąáŹáˇáááźááˇáş ááŹááááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááşá¸ ááááŻáĄááşááąáŹáˇááťáą á
ááŻá áŹá¸ááźááşáááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸áááş ááŻáśáážááşáĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş áá°ááŻáášáááŻááşáážá áşáŚá¸áĄááźáŹá¸áážá áĄááźááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸áážáŻááᯠááźáąáážááşá¸áááş áááşáá˝ááşáááˇáş áááŹá¸ááážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄááťáŻáśá¸áááşáááşá áááŹá¸ááážáŻáááŻááşáᏠááŻá áŹá¸ ááźááşáááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ áĄááťáŹá¸ááá áąáááşááźáąááŹááźááşá¸áážááˇáşááŻááşáááášáᏠáááááŻááşááśááá°ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá áşááŹááźáąá¸ááąá¸ááźááşá¸áá˛áˇáááŻáˇááąáŹáĄááŹááťáŹá¸ááŤáááşáááşá
ááťáąáŹáşááźáąá¸áááŻááşááąáŹ ááŻá áŹá¸ááźááşáááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸áááşáááşá¸ ááŻáśááąáŹááşááąáŹ ááźáąáážááşá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááźá áşááąáˇáážááááş
ááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáážáŻáá áşááŻáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźáąáŹááşááŤá ááąáŹááşá¸áááşá áŹááᯠááŻááşááźááşááąá¸ááźááşá¸á áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áážááˇáş á áŹáááşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá áŽááž ááźáŻ ááŻááşááąá¸ááąáŹ áĄáážáŹá¸ááźááşáááşááťááş(áááŻáˇáááŻááş)ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşá áááş áááŻáˇááᯠáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĄááťáŹá¸á áŻáĄáá˝ááş áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ ááŽáá˝ááşááąáŹ ááŻá áŹá¸ááźááşáááşáá˝ááˇáşáĄááźá áş áááşáážááşáááˇáşáááşá
áĄáážáŹá¸ááźááşáááşááťááşá ááąáŹááşá¸áááşááźááşá¸á ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşáááŻáˇáĄáŹá¸ ááŻááşááźááşááźááşá¸áážááˇáşááźááşááźáŹá¸ááźááşá¸
áĄáážáŹá¸ ááźááşáááşááťááşáá áşááŻáááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááąáŹ ááááşá¸áá áşááŻááᯠááźááşáááşááźááşáááşááąá¸áááŻááşáááşá ááąáŹááşá¸áááşá áŹáá áşááŻáááş áážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸ ááąáŹááááşá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáş ááźá áşááąáŤáşááąáŹ áááşáááˇáşáááááŻááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááşáááᯠáážáŹá¸áá˝ááşá¸áážáŻ áĄáá˝ááş áááşá¸áááşá¸ ááąáŹááşááááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááᯠááąáŤáşááźáááşá ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşáá áşááŻááᯠááŻááşááźááşááąá¸ááźááşá¸áááş áááŹá¸ááśááźá áşáá°áááş áĄáážáŹá¸ááźáŻááŻááşááźáąáŹááşá¸ áĄááááąá¸ááźááşá¸ áá áşáááşááźá áşáááşá ááźááşááźáŹá¸ááźááşá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşááśááá°áĄáá˝ááş áĄáááşááźáąáŹááˇáşááááşá¸áážáŹá¸ááźá áşáááźááşá¸ááᯠáážááşá¸ááźáááŻááşáááş áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄáááşá¸ááážáá áąáááˇáşáĄááźááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇáĄááąáŤáş áááşááąáŹááşáááˇáş áááşáááˇáşááŻááşáááášááŹáááááŻááşáážáŻáááŻáááᯠááŻááşááąáŤáşááźááááŻááşáááşá
áĄáážáŹá¸ááźááşáááşááťááşááťáŹá¸áááąáŹááşá¸áááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áááźááşááźáŹá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááşáᏠááźááşááźáŹá¸ááąá¸áááşáááŻáĄááşááąáŹáşáááşá¸ á áááşááśá áŹá¸áážáŻáááááŻááşá áąáážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááşááááŻáĄááşááŤá
ááźááşááźáŹá¸áááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşáááş áĄáážáŹá¸ááźááşáááşááťááşááťáŹá¸á ááąáŹááşá¸áááşá áŹááťáŹá¸ááźááˇáş áááŻáśááąáŹááşáááˇáş áĄááźáąáĄááąááťááŻá¸áážááŹááťážááş áááŻáĄááşáááşá ááźááşááźáŹá¸áá˝ážáŹ áá áşá áąáŹááşáááş áĄáááąááťááşáá˝ááşá¸á áąáá˛áˇááąáŹ áá°ááĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄááŹáážááˇáş áá°ááŽááąáŹ ááááŹááźááşááŹáážáŻáážáááááşá áĽáááŹ-ááááşá¸á áŹáá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáá˝ááşá¸á áąáááˇáş á áŹááŹá¸ááŤáááşáá˛áˇááąáŹ á áŹááťááşáážáŹááąááŹááťááŻá¸ ááźá áşáááşá ááŻááşááźááşááśááźáŹá¸áá˝ááş áááŻááŤá áá°ááá˝ážááˇáşááŻááşáá˛áˇááąáŹ áĄááťáááşááŹáááťááŻá¸ááźá áşáááşá ááąáˇ(á )áá˝ááşááşáááŻááŤááááşá¸ áá°ááŽááąáŹááááşá¸ áááşáááˇáşáĄááźáąáĄááąááťááŻá¸ áááŻáááŻáááŻáááşá
ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşáá áşááŻáááŻááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááŹáá˝ááşáááşá¸ áá°ááĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ ááźá áşá ááşáĄáááŻááşá¸áĄááŹá¸áá°ááąáŹ ááááŹááźááşááŹáážáŻáážáááááşá
áá˝áąááźáąá¸áĄááááááŻááşáážáŻáááş áĄáážááşááááş áááááŻááş áá áşááŹáááˇáşáĄáááŻááşá¸ áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽáᎠáá˝ááşááťááşáááˇáşáááş
áá˝áąááźáąá¸áááŻááşáááˇáş ááŻá áŹá¸ááźááşáááşáá˝ááˇáşááźá áşáááˇáş áá°áááážááşááźáŹá¸ ááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááťááşáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźáąáŹááˇáş ááąáŤáşááąáŤááş áá˛áˇááąáŹ áá áşááŹáááááŻááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş áááŻáśááąáŹááşáážáᏠáá˝áąááźáąá¸áĄá áááááŻááşáážáŻáááŻáááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááŹááťážááş ááąá¸áááˇáşáááşá
áááşáááˇáşáá
áşááŹááźáąá¸ááąá¸ááťáąáŹáşáážáŻáááᯠáĄááťááŻá¸áĄá
áŹá¸ ááŽáá˝ááşááááş ááźá
áşááźáŽá¸ááááŹá¸ááśáĄáá˝ááş ááááŹáááˇáşáááááŻááşáážáŻááťááŻá¸áĄááźá
áşááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻ ááážáá
áąáááˇáşááŤá áááŻáˇáááşá¸áááŻááş áááŹá¸ááśáááŻáˇá áĄááŻááş áááşáááşááŻááşáááŻááşáááŻááşá
á˝ááşá¸áááŻáááşá¸ ááááááŻááşá
áąáááˇáşááťáąá áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ááśáááŻáˇ á
ááŻá¸ááááş ááźáąáŹááşáááˇáşáá˝ááş áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááťááŻá¸ ááááşááŽá¸áááĄáąáŹááşáááşá¸ áááááźáŻááááş ááźá
áşáááşá
ááťáąáŹáşááźáąá¸ááąá¸ááťáąáŹáşááááˇáş áĄáááŻááşá¸áĄááŹáááŻááźááŹááşá¸áááˇáş áá˝ááşááťááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĽáááąáá˝ááş áážááşá¸áááşá¸ ááźááşááŹá¸á
á˝áŹ áá˝ááˇáşáááŻááŹá¸áááˇáşáááşá áá˝ááşááťááşáážáŻáááş ááŻááşáááášááŹááťááşáá˝ááşá¸áážáŻ ááźáąáŹááˇáş áĄáážááşááááş áážááˇáş áááşááąááźááźáŽá¸ááźá
áşááąáŹ ááŻááşáááŻááşá¸áááŻááşááŹá áá˝áąááźáąá¸áááŻááşáᏠáážááˇáş áá°áážáŻááąá¸áá
áşááŹááŻáśá¸áážáŻáśá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áááŻáᏠááźáŻáśááŻáśááá
áąááááşá áááááŻááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááááťááąáŹ áááˇáşáááşááťááşáááş áááŻááşá¸áᏠáá˝ááşááťááşá ááááąáŹ áááşáááˇáş ááŻááşáááŻááşá¸áááŻááşááŹáážááˇáş áá°áážáŻáááŻááşááŹááŻáśá¸áážáŻáśá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááşáááᯠáááşááąáŹááşá
áąáááˇáşáááşá
áááááŻááşááŻáśá¸áážáŻáśá¸áážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááąá¸áááşááťáąáŹáşááźáąá¸ááᯠáá˝ááşááŹáá˝ááş áĄáážáŹá¸ááźááşáááşááťááşáááąáŹááşá¸áááşááźááşá¸á ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşááᯠáá°áááážááşááźáŹá¸ááŻááş ááźááşááźááşá¸(áááŻáˇáááŻááş)ááŻáśáˇááźááşááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á áááááŻááşáážáŻ áááŹááĄáá˝ááşáĄá áŹá¸ááťážáąáŹáˇááťááŹáá˝ááş ááąáŹááşá¸á á˝áŹáááşáááşáá˛áˇááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááąááťáŹá áąááááş ááźá áşáááşá
áá˝áąááźá¸áĄááááááŻááşáážáŻáááŻááźá áşáááşáááąá¸áááˇáş
áá˝áąááźáąá¸áĄá áááááŻááşáážáŻáĄáŹá¸ ááźá áşáááşááŻáśá áśáááŻááşáᲠáĄááźá˛áááŻáááᯠááąá¸ááťáąáŹáşá áąááźááşá¸áᏠááźá áşáááˇáşáááşá áĄáááąááťááşáá°áááş ááááŹááąáŹ áĄááŻááşá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áá áşááťá°áážáŻáážáŻááŤáááşáááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ áᯠáááŹá¸áááŻááž áááşááąááźáááŻááşáááˇáş áĄáá°á¸áĄááźáąáĄááąááťááŻá¸ áá˝ááşáᏠáááˇáşáááşááŹá¸ááąáŹ áááşáá˝ááşááŹá¸áááˇáş áááááŻááşááťááşá áŽá¸ áážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ áááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸áááˇáşáááşá
áĄááźááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸áážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááá°áá˝á˛ááźáŹá¸ááąáŹ ááźáąáážááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸ ááąáŹááşááśáˇááąá¸ááźááşá¸
áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşáááŹá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşááśááááşáᯠáááŻááşááźáŹá¸ááŹáá°ááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ áĄááźáŹá¸áá˝áąá¸ááťááşá ááŹááźá áşáááˇáş á áŹáááşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá áŽáá˛áˇáááŻáˇááąáŹ áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááááˇáş ááźáąáážááşá¸áááŻááşáááş áá°ááŽááśáˇáááŻá¸ááąá¸áááˇáşáááşá áááŻáˇááąáŹáş áááŻáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áá˝ááş áááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŤáş ááąá¸ááŹá¸ááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáĄáá˝ááş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááşá¸áá° (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áááşáááŻáááŻááźáŽá¸ áĄááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸áážáŻ ááᯠááááşá¸ááááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááąááťáŹá áąááááşá
ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸ áá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşááśááá°áĄááťáŹá¸á áŻáááş á áŹáááşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşá áŽáááŻáˇ áááŻááşááźáŹá¸ááźááşá¸ááᯠáááŻáááŻáážá áşáááşááźáááşá áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸áážáŹ áá°áááŻáˇáááşááťážááş ááťááşááťááşááźááşááźááşáážááˇáş á áŹá¸ááááşá á áááşá¸ááŤá¸ááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáşááźá áşáááşá áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸á áá°áážáąá¸áá˝áąá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááąá¸ááźáŽá¸áááˇáşáážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸ áááŻáĄááşááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáşááźá áşáááşá
áĄááťáááşááŹááááˇáşáááşááťááşááźáĽáááą
á á˝ááşá á˝á˛ááŹá¸ááąáŹáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźá áşáá˝áŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ááąáŹááş áááˇáşáááşááŹá¸ááąáŹ áĄááťáááş áĄáááŻááşá¸áĄáᏠáá áşááŻáĄáá˝ááşá¸áᏠáááşááśáááˇáşáááşá áááşá¸ááᯠâáĄááťáááşááŹááááˇáşáááşááťááşááź áĽáááąâ áᯠááąáŤáşáááŻáááşá áááŻáĽáááąá ááźá áşááťááşáá˛áˇáááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááąáˇááťáąáŹáˇááąáŹááşá¸ ááąáˇááťáąáŹáˇááąáááş (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áĄááťáááşááŹáááźáŹááźááˇáşáááşáážááˇáşáĄááťáž áááşááąáĄááąáŹááşááťáŹá¸ ááťáąáŹááşááŻáśá¸áá˝áŹá¸áááŻááşáááˇáş áááŹá¸ááśáĄáŹá¸ áĄááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸ááŹá¸áááşá
áĄááťááşáĄááźááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááąá¸áážáŻ
áááŹá¸ááťážááážáŻáááŻááşááŹá áá áşáĄá áááŹá¸ááśááᯠáĄááąá¸áá°ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáááˇáş áĄááźáŻáĄáá°áááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŤáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáĄáŹá¸ ááźááşá¸áááşáááˇáş ááááşáááˇáşááŻááşáážáŻááşáážáŻááᯠááźá áşááąáŤáşáááşááąáŹááşá áąáááŻááşáááşá ááŹááážááş ááźáŹááźáŽá¸áááŻááşááťá ááááş ááźáŽá¸ááŹá¸ááŹá á áááşáááĄáŹá¸ááťáŹá¸ááąáŹ áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áĄáážáŻ ááá ášá ááťáŹá¸áááş ááááááŹááŹáááşááŹááááşá¸ááťáŻááşááźááşá¸ááᯠáĽáááąáááŻá¸áá áşáᯠáááşáááşáááŻá áá˝ááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááŻááşáááşá
áá°áááŻááşá¸áááş áĄáááşáĄááťááşá¸ááźááˇáşáᏠáá˝ááşáááş áĄáážáŽáĄáááŻáááşá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááťááşáážáŹááááŻááşáááˇáş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áááźáŻááŻááşááąáŹ ááťážáááźáŽá¸ áĄááťáŹá¸ ááźááşáá° ááąáˇááŹááźáŹá¸áááááŻááşáááˇáş ááťážááşááźááşááąáŹááąáŹááşáá˝ááşááąá¸áážáŻááᯠááśáá°áá˝ááˇáşáážááá°ááťáŹá¸áááş ááźá áşááźáááşá
ááŹááááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá°áááŻááşá¸áááşáĄáąáŹááşááŤáĄááťááşááťáŹá¸ááážááá˝ááˇáşáážááááşá
- á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻááᯠáĄááťáááşááááŻááşá¸áá˛áážááˇáş áĄááąá¸á áááşáĄááááąá¸ááźááşá¸ááážáááááş
- ááŻááśááťáąáááźááşá¸áĄáá˝ááşááźááşáááşáááşááŻáśááąáŹááşááąáŹáĄááťáááş áážááˇáş áááŻáĄááşááťááşááťáŹá¸ááážáá áąááźááşá¸
- áááťáąáŹáşáááşááąáŹáážáąáŹááˇáşáážáąá¸áážáŻááážáá áąáá˛ááźááŻá¸áááşá¸á áąááááş
- áĽáááąááąá¸ááŹáĄááąáŹááşáĄáá°áážáá áąááááş (áááŻáĄááşááťážááşáĄááá˛áˇ)
- áááşááąááťáŹá¸áááŻá á áşááąá¸áááŻááşááááş
- áĄááá˛áˇ ááŹááŹááźááşáá áşáŚá¸ááážáááááş
- áĄáááşá¸áĄááźááşá á áşááąá¸ááśáááźááşá¸ááážáá áąá áááŻáˇáááŻááş ááźá áşáážáŻááᯠáĄáááşá¸áááşááśá áąááźááşá¸ááážáá áąá
âáĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá°ááŤáááşáááşáááşááźááşá¸ááᯠáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáááˇáş áááŹááťá°ááŹááźáąáŹááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻááťáŹá¸â (SLAPPs) áááş áááááááŻááş áááŻáááşááŹááááşá¸ááťáŻááşáážáŻááᯠáá˝ááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááş ááźááŹáĄáŹááŹáážáááąáŹááŻáášáááŻááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááąáŹ áááşá¸ááťá°ááŹáá áş ááźá áşáááşá ááᯠSLAPPs áááşá¸ááťá°ááŹááźááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻááźááşá¸áááş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄáááŻááşááááşáááťážáąáŹáşáááˇáşááŹá¸áá˛á áááşá¸áĄá áŹá¸ áááŹá¸ááśáĄáá˝ááş áĄááťáááşááźáŹááźááˇáşá áąáááşá ááŻááşááťá ááááşááźáŽá¸ááŹá¸á áąáááş áážááˇáş á áááşáááĄáŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á áąáááş áááşáá˝ááşáááşá áááŻáá˛áˇáááŻááąáŹ ááááŻááŻááşá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹá áááşááźááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ áĽáááąááᯠáĄáá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸á áŹá¸ááźáŻááźááşá¸á áááŻá¸ááŤá¸áážááąáŹ ááááşáááˇáşáá˝ááş áĄááťááŻá¸áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááᯠááźá áşááąáŤáşá áąáááşá áááŻáááşá¸áááŻááźáᏠáĄáŹááŹáážááá°ááťáŹá¸ ááťááşá¸ááŹááźá˝ááşáááąáŹáá°ááťáŹá¸ááá°áĄááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ áážáŻááşááááşááąá áąáááşáĄáá˝ááş áááźáŹáá áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźáááşá
ááŽááťážááąáŹáĄááşáĄáŹá¸
áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áááŹá¸ááᯠáážááˇáş áááŹá¸ááźááŻááşááťáŹá¸áááş áá°áááŻáˇááĄáážáŻááᯠááťážáąáŹááşáá˛áááşáĄáá˝ááş ááťážáááąáŹá ááŽááťážááąáŹ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ áážááááˇáşáááşá áážá áşáááşá ááŻáśá¸ááᯠáááşááąááťáŹá¸ááąáŤáşááźááşá¸ááĄááźááşáĄáážááş ááąá¸áá˝ááşá¸ááŻááşááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááŽááťážááąáŹáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááąá¸ááŹá¸ááááşá áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááş áá˝áąááźáąá¸ááááşáááŻááşáááˇáşáĄáá˝ááşááźáąáŹááˇáş áá áşáááşáááŻáˇ áá°á¸áá°á¸ááźáŹá¸ááźáŹá¸áážáááˇáşááťááźááşá¸áááźáŻááá áąáááş ááąááťáŹáĄáąáŹááş ááŻááşááąáŹááşááááşá
áĄáááşáááąáŤáşáááŻáááˇáşáááşá¸ááźá áşááᯠááŹáá˝ááşááąá¸ááźááşá¸
á áŹáááşáááşá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáş áĄááťáŹá¸ááźááşáá° áĄááťááŻá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááŻáśáážáááş ááŻááşááąááąáŹ áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áá°áááŻáˇá ááááşá¸áááşá¸ááźá áşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄáááşáááąáŤáşáᲠááťážááŻáˇáážááşáĄáá˝ááşá¸ááąá¸áĄááźá áş ááááşá¸áááşá¸ááŹá¸áá˝ááˇáşáážááááşá
áĄáááşá áááŹá¸ááśá áááşá¸á áĄáááşáááąáŹáşáááŻááąáŹ ááááşá¸áĄáááşá¸áĄááźá áşááᯠááŹáá˝ááşáááŻááťážááş áĄááťááşáĄáááş áĄáááŻááşáĄááŹááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşáááş áážááşáááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áááşááąááźááźáŽá¸áááŻááşááťááˇáş áááášááŹá áąáŹááˇáşááááąáŹ áĄááźáąáĄááąáá áşáááş áááŻáááşááŽá¸áááŻááşáááşá
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A defamation law or provision must achieve the correct balance between the right to reputation and the right to freedom of expression in order to ensure democracy can function. A proper balance means that people are not punished when criticising and holding accountable those in power. The globally accepted balance is known as the “international standards” on defamation.
International standards on defamation are built upon a number of sources including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
For decades, the standards have been elaborated upon in international courts and by international governmental organisations, such as the United Nations. Some of the standards were briefly summarised by the United Nations in 2011 in General Comment number 34.
International standards apply to several parts of the state:
- Government and the legislature amending and adopting effective, necessary, and proportionate defamation laws
- Courts applying the law while protecting freedom of expression to the greatest extent possible
- Police and prosecutors ensuring defamation complaints are in the public interest.
Every international standard included below is a concise explanation of an established international legal norm. Each standard is summarised for brevity, but further details can be supplied to any interested parties.
Defamation laws must comply with the three-part test (see above). They should be designed as narrowly as possible so that that they do not serve, in practice, to stifle freedom of expression.
Defamation laws should only apply to statements that are:
- False
- Factual
- Cause damage
- And the damage must be to a person’s reputation, which means that the statement must have been seen or heard by others.
Defamation laws should only apply to statements that result in serious harm to a person’s reputation.
The scope of a defamation law is the extent of the area on which it is relevant.
Public bodies should not be allowed to bring defamation suits
This includes ministries, parliament, the judiciary, and the military.
Public bodies do not have a reputation as they are abstract entities without a profit motive and with neither emotional nor financial interests to protect. Public bodies exist for long periods of time and the only real reputation is that of the leaders and other senior decision-makers overseeing the institution. Bringing defamation suits is also a waste of public funds.
When public bodies bring defamation suits, it is almost always to prevent criticism of their performance and leads to a chilling effect on public debate.
Objects and symbols cannot be defamed
This includes flags, religious symbols, national insignia, and constitutions.
Like public bodies, objects and symbols do not have a reputation as they are abstract entities without a profit motive and with neither emotional nor financial interests to protect.
Allegations of defamation of objects or symbols are often smokescreens for stifling legitimate criticism of powerful institutions and their leadership.
Public officials and politicians should tolerate more criticism than ordinary persons
The more senior that they are, the more criticism they should tolerate. Politicians in particular should tolerate more criticism.
Public officials and politicians knowingly choose a public role in which they should expect scrutiny and vigorous debate on their words and actions, some of which will be highly critical.
If public officials and politicians are given similar status to ordinary persons, the constant threat of legal action would stifle the public debate which is vital to a democracy.
Public bodies, public officials, and politicians have significant non-legal options available to counter false information without using the law. In democracies they can use their press offices, public information systems, and issue public statements.
These non-legal options are even greater in Myanmar compared to other countries because the government controls all the broadcasters and the largest-selling newspapers too.It is clear therefore that when public bodies, public officials, and politicians use defamation laws, their aim is not to counter false information, but rather to punish and prevent criticism.
Public figures should tolerate more criticism than ordinary persons
A public figure is someone who engages in actions which generate publicity, such as authors, musicians, sports people, and religious and business leaders. By generating publicity, they become a matter of public interest.
Public figures are people who intentionally have a prominent social status. Like politicians, public figures choose a public role in which they should expect scrutiny and vigorous debate on their words and actions, some of which will be highly critical.
Public figuresâ prominent social status means that they also have significant non-legal options available to counter false information. For example, they can speak through the media, or directly to social media audiences.
Defences are legal arguments used to avoid liability. In a court, a defendant may contest allegations made against them, make counter-allegations, or use a defence arguing that even if the allegations are true, the defendant is not liable. For the below defences, a defendant normally holds the burden of proof.
Truth is an absolute defence
Just because a statement attacking a person’s reputation is unflattering does not make it defamatory. A defamatory statement is one which is unwarranted – a false assertion of fact.
Defendants must never be held liable for defamation unless their assertion of fact is proven false. The defence of truth is an absolute and complete defence.
Showing that an assertion of fact is false is fundamental to any defamation case, and therefore the burden of proof should be on the prosecution or plaintiff to prove that the assertion is false.
In cases involving the public interest, the standard of proof required to show that an assertion of fact is false should be higher than in a normal case.
In democracies the burden of proof is particularly important in cases involving public officials or politicians. Although public officials and politicians do have reputations, public debate would be stifled if everybody must prove the truth of everything they say. Instead, democracies generally accept that when a person chooses to take a public role they agree to greater criticism, some of which may be unwarranted, in the interests of the greater good.
Opinion is an absolute defence
An opinion is a view formed about something. It falls short of certainty and may not necessarily be based on fact or knowledge. An opinion may be misguided, but as it is not an assertion of fact, it cannot be proven false.
Therefore, defendants must never be held liable for defamation based on a statement of opinion. The law has no role in regulating opinions as the right to opinion is absolute.
Sometimes it is difficult to determine whether a statement is an opinion or an assertion of fact. This is particularly the case regarding statements intended as jokes, mockery, or exaggerations. At other times, an opinion can be insulting. Democracies prefer not to regulate subjective opinions, even those that are insulting, because of the danger posed to freedom when a government begins to decide which opinions are acceptable and which are not.
Defence of reasonable publication
A “reasonable publication” is a statement that includes an assertion of fact made in good faith but that later turns out to be false.
Defendants should not be held liable for defamation if they made an honest mistake based on information available at the time that they made the statement, and which they later changed after new information came out.
The media often uses the defence of reasonable publication. In democracies, the public expects to receive important news increasingly quickly, often within hours and often while a story is still developing. Therefore, journalists do not have much time to thoroughly verify facts and may make honest mistakes which they later correct. Punishing journalists or human rights defenders for every uncorrected false assertion would be disproportionate and would lead to mass self-censorship. If a media outlet or journalist repeatedly make honest mistakes due to a lack of capacity, a self-regulatory body, such as a press council, could publicly urge them to invest greater resources.
Defence of repeating the words of others
Repeating what somebody else has said in order to inform others, to share news, or in some cases to disagree with the original statement, is known as “words of others”.
Defendants should not be held liable for defamation when it is clear that they are repeating an assertion of fact made by someone else, where the assertion is on something in the public interest, and where the defendant has not supported the assertion.
Journalists and others reporting news are expected to cover people’s assertions when the subject is in the public interest, and in doing so they are not expected to distance themselves from the assertion or check its truthfulness.
In democracies it is in the public interest to hear both the positive and negative things that people say. A sign of good professional journalism is the inclusion of counter-statements to ensure balance wherever possible.
The defence of repeating the words of others has become more relevant due to the ease with which people can share on Facebook and re-tweet on Twitter.
Defence of innocent publication
Unknowingly repeating, publishing, or helping disseminate defamation is known as âinnocent publicationâ.
Defendants should not be held liable for defamation if they were not the author, editor, or publisher of the statement, and they did not know or have reason to believe that they helped share defamation.
This includes people who have no control over content like designers and newspaper sellers as well as intermediary companies like printers and internet service providers (ISPs).
There are often many people involved in newspapers, websites, and social media but only a few are liable for defamation. In democracies liability is narrow because otherwise everyone involved in dissemination would become a censor. For example, if a newspaper seller was liable, an editor would need to get the sellerâs approval for every story. If Facebook was liable, Facebook would have to review every post before allowing it.
Consent is an absolute defence
A person who provides or somehow accepts (through words, actions, or behaviour) a statement that includes a false assertion of fact about themselves is regarded as âconsentingâ to the dissemination of that false assertion of fact.
Defendants should not be held liable for defamation if the subject had previously consented to that false assertion of fact.
People often repeat what they have been told. For example, in democracies media usually request a comment from the subject of their stories in order to be fair and balanced. If the subject gives or confirms false information, then they have consented to it and cannot later bring a defamation case.
Absolute and qualified privileges
The ability to speak freely is so important to debate in courts and elected bodies such as parliament that whatever is said in those courts and elected bodies is given the status of âabsolute privilegeâ, commonly known as immunity.
Defendants should never be held liable for defamation for statements made under absolute privilege. This also applies to any media who report statements made under absolute privilege.
Statements made under a legal, moral, or social duty, but outside of courts and parliament, such as speaking in public meetings or reporting alleged crimes to the police, are given the lesser status of âqualified privilegeâ. Statements made under qualified privilege are also not liable for defamation unless they are proven to have been made with malice.
MPs and courts can only do their job if they are free to debate and argue openly without restriction. Democracies believe that even the smallest threat of restriction could potentially lead to self-censorship and the adoption and application of bad laws and flawed decisions. In courts, absolute privilege applies to judges, lawyers, witnesses, police, and those giving evidence. Democracies also want to ensure that courts never have jurisdiction over what elected MPs say in parliament.
Sanctions and remedies are given by courts in response to the harm caused by defamation. Sanctions usually fall under criminal laws which are intended to prevent behaviours regarded as undesirable by society. Criminal sanctions include prison sentences and monetary fines that go into the state coffers.
In democracies, when given a choice, people who allege they have been defamed often choose to use civil rather than criminal law because they want any financial damages to come to them rather than being given to the state.
Criminal defamation laws should be replaced with civil defamation laws
Criminal sanctions are increasingly regarded as unjustifiable in a democracy because they are both disproportionate and unnecessary.
Criminal sanctions are disproportionate because the involvement of police and prosecutors, as well as long trials, imprisonment, criminal records, and the resulting social stigma and loss of livelihood are considered overly harsh compared to the harm caused. They are also unnecessary because many countries, including in Asia, have shown that reputations can be effectively protected using civil laws.
Criminal defamation laws should therefore be replaced with civil defamation laws.
International bodies such as the UN and UNESCO increasingly condemn criminal defamation laws because of the significant chilling effect they have on free expression. Globally, the majority of criminal complaints are made by powerful people such as politicians, religious leaders, and business owners, usually to prevent legitimate criticism. Sometimes, criminal cases are brought by the complainant as a form of revenge against the defendant.
Criminal sanctions are only justifiable in the most serious cases
In countries that choose to retain criminal defamation laws, they should only ever be used in the most serious cases where there is significant public interest in using criminal sanctions.
Police and prosecutors should not support criminal sanctions
Police, prosecutors, and other public officials should not initiate or prosecute cases involving criminal sanctions, including when the complainant is a public official.
This is because the involvement of police, prosecutors, and other public officials is considered disproportionate against the defendant, is a waste of public funds for no public benefit, and is likely to lead to a chilling effect on freedom of expression.
Criminal sanctions require a high standard of proof
When criminal defamation laws are used, the prosecution holds the burden of proof. The prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that:
- The assertion of fact was false
- The defendant knew it was false or showed reckless disregard for its truthfulness
- The assertion was made with the intention of causing harm to the reputation of the complainant.
Imprisonment is never justifiable
In cases where the prosecution has proven defamation which has resulted in serious harm, it is never acceptable for a court to sentence a defendant to imprisonment, regardless of how severe the damage to reputation was.
Criminal defamation laws were once regarded as proportionate and necessary because defamation disputes were a concern of the state as those persons defamed often sought redress through violence, such as by duels. Democracies have since established non-violent mechanisms to deal with such disputes. Without the threat of violence, criminal laws are no longer necessary.
Remedies usually fall under civil laws which are intended to resolve disputes between individuals. Civil remedies include published corrections as well as financial damages that go to the person whose reputation has been harmed.
Non-financial remedies are usually sufficient redress
Where a statement has been found to be defamation, the publication of an apology, a correction, or a judgement made by a court or a press council, should be regarded as a proportionate remedy for most defamation cases.
Correction, apology, publication of a judgement, and reply
A correction fixes mistaken information. An apology expresses regret for any harm caused by that mistaken information. A publication of a judgement is a notice that the defendant has done wrong. A reply is an opportunity for the defamed to explain why information was mistaken and describe any resulting harm to their reputation.
Corrections, apologies and replies are only necessary in response to defamation, not to hurt feelings.
A right of reply is necessary only when a correction or apology was inadequate to restore a damaged reputation. A reply should have similar prominence to the original defamation. For example, in a similar position in a newspaper, a similar time of day on television, or posted with similar importance on Facebook.
Publication of a judgement should also have similar prominence to the original defamation.
Financial damages should be proportionate and calculated according to real harm
Financial damages should only be awarded by a court where they are necessary because publication of a non-financial remedy has not been sufficient to redress the harm caused by the defamation.
Any damages awarded must be proportionate and should never threaten significant harm to the defendant or their ability to continue working. Courts must be careful not to give damages that create a chilling effect on others.
Calculations determining the size of compensatory damages should be clearly defined in law and should only cover the actual and proven physical, financial, and social loss caused as a result of the reputational harm. A strict limit on damages should apply to any unquantifiable physical and social loss.
Calculations of compensatory damages should ensure that any correction, apology, publication of a judgement, or reply is properly reflected in a reduction of the size of the damages.
Financial damages should not punish
Financial damages should almost always be compensatory and not a form of punishment. Limited punitive damages should only be added in very special circumstances where the plaintiff has proven that the defamation included significant malice or negligence.
Supporting alternative dispute resolutions
Laws and courts should support people who claim to have been defamed to seek redress through alternative dispute resolution mechanisms such as press councils. However, those mechanisms must ensure that they maintain the same or higher protection for free expression than courts.
In democracies many people who are defamed prefer complaining to press councils because they are fast and less costly, whereas courts are slow and require expensive lawyers.
Statute of limitations
Cases should only be accepted within a limited period of time after the alleged defamation took place. This is called the âstatute of limitationsâ and protects defendants who may forget what happened or lose evidence over time.
Expeditious treatment
The manner in which defendants are treated by the justice system can have a serious chilling effect on freedom of expression. Long, expensive, and stressful court cases can encourage self-censorship more than a bad law.
Everybody is entitled to expeditious treatment with a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent, and impartial court.
In criminal cases, everybody also has the right to:
- Be informed promptly and in detail of the charge
- Have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence
- Be tried without undue delay
- Have legal assistance (free if necessary)
- Examine witnesses
- Have a free interpreter
- Not be compelled to testify against themselves or to confess guilt.
âStrategic lawsuits against public participationâ or âSLAPPsâ are a new tactic used by powerful people and institutions to encourage self-censorship. SLAPPs are not expected to win in court, but are instead intended to be long, expensive, and stressful for the defendant. Such malicious abuse of defamation laws makes a significantchilling effect and are often used by powerful and wealthy individuals who want to silence debate.
Equality of arms
There should be a fair balance in the opportunities given to both the complainant and the defendant to argue their case. Both should be given equal opportunity to call witnesses and cross examine them too. Courts should also ensure that one side is not significantly undermined by a lack of financial resources.
Protecting anonymous sources
Journalists and others who publish in the public interest have a right to keep their sources of information confidential and anonymous.
Proving that an assertion of fact is true may create an ethical dilemma if a defendant wants to protect an anonymous source.
Journalists and others who rely on sources should not be required to testify unless it is absolutely essential, the information cannot be found elsewhere, and there is no likelihood of harming the journalist or restricting their access to similar sources in the future.
Best practices
New laws and landmark court cases made in other countries are not legally binding but are useful sources to consult on the most advanced decisions and most persuasive reasoning. Courts should accept the submission of such relevant case law in order to educate the court.
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- áááşá¸áááş áááŻáááŻáááááŻááşá áąáááˇáş áĄá ááŻá¸áááŤáááş áĄááźá áşááąá¸ááźááşá¸áááş áá°ááŻáĄáŹá¸ áááşá¸áááŻáˇááááááášáááźáżááŹááťáŹá¸áááŻâ áááŻááşáááŻááşááźáąáážááşá¸ááźáááş áááŻááşáá˝ááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ááąá¸ááźááşá¸ ááźá áşáááşá
á áááşááąáŤáşáážáŻááťáŹá¸
- áĽáááąáĄááźááˇáşáĄá áŻáśááᯠááąá¸áá˝á˛áĄáááşááźáŻáááşáĄáá˝ááş áĄááťáááşáá°ááááşááźá áşáááşá áĽáááąááąá¸áá˝á˛ááŹáá˝ááş áá˝ááˇáşáááşá¸ ááźááşááŹááźáŽá¸ áááşáááŻááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ ááŤáááşááąáŹ ááąáŹááşá¸áá˝ááşáááˇáş áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áááŻááşáááşáážáŻ ááŻááşáááşá¸á ááşáá áşáᯠááźá áşááŹá áąáááş áĄááťáááşáá°ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáááˇáşááŤáááşá
- áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááąááźááąáŹ ááťáŹáááşáá áşááťáŹá¸á áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááŹáá˝ááş á áąáŹááˇáşáážáąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸ááᯠááąááŤááŽááśáá˝áŹá¸ááĄáąáŹááş áááŹá¸ááážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąáĄáŹá¸ ááŤááŤáážáááąáŹáá°ááťáŹá¸ááž áĄáá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸á áŹá¸ááźáŻáááŻááşááźáááşá áááŻáˇááźáąáŹááˇáş áĽáááąáá áşááŻááᯠáĄáá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸á áŹá¸áááźáŻáááŻááşááźá áąáááş ááąááťáŹá á˝áŹááąá¸áá˝á˛ááźááááşááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸áá˝ááş ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşáááŻááşááŽáááˇáş áĄááŹáĄáá˝ááşááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ ááŤáááşáááˇáşááźáŽá¸á áá áşááŹáááááŻááşááŻáśá¸áážáŻáśá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş áááˇáşááťáąáŹáşáááˇáş áá˝áąáááşáááŹá áááˇáşáááşááťááşáá áşááŻáážáááááş ááźá áşáááşá
ááŻááááááşá¸áááşá¸áááş ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸áážá ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąáá˝ááş áááŻáááŻáááŻááşááŹááąáŹ áĄááŹáĄáá˝ááşááąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááąá¸áááş ááźá áşáááşá áááŻááşááśáááŹááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááŻááśááťáąááááŻááşáááˇáş áĄááŹáĄáá˝ááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáážá ááŻááşá (ááá) áá˝ááşááąáŹáşááźááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááźá˝ááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄááźááˇáşáĄááááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸áááŻááşáááşáĄáááŻáˇáážáŹ áááşá¸ááŻááşá (ááá)áĄáŹá¸ ááźááşáááşááźááşáááşáááş áááŻáĄááşáááşááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážá áĄááŹáĄáá˝ááşááąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄáážááşáááŹá¸á áááşááźááşáá°áááťááşá ááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááŽááťáąáŹáşááąáŹ ááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááťááşá áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááĄáááŻááᯠáááşááśááąáŹáşááźááźááşá¸á áááąáŹáááŻá¸ááźááˇáşááŻááşááźááşááźáąááŹááťááşá ááźááşáááşááąáŹáşááźáááş áááąáŹáá°ááŽáážáŻ ááąá¸ááźááşá¸áážááˇáşá ááźáŽá¸ááźááˇáşá áŻáśááźáŽá¸ áĄáááşáĄáá˝áąá¸ááźááˇáşááŽááąáŹ áĄáá˝ááˇáşáá°á¸ááśááźááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ ááŤáááşáááşá (á¤ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ áážááˇáşáááşáááşá áááŻáááŻáááážááááŻááŤá FEM áážááŻááşááąááŹá¸ááąáŹ âáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááŹááŹáá˛á áááŻááşááśááᏠá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśááĽáááąáá°ááąáŹááşâ áá˝ááşááźááˇáşáážáŻááŤá )
áĄááťááŻá¸ááťáąá¸áá°á¸ááťáŹá¸
- áááŻáááŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸áááˇáş ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááŹá¸ááááˇáşáá°ááᯠáĄáááşá¸ááśáá ááşáážááˇáş á á˝á˛ááťááşáááşááśáááťáááşáá˝ááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇáááŻááşáááŻááşááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáááŻááşá áąááááˇáşáááşááźá áşááźáŽá¸á áááŻáˇáážáᏠáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáááˇáşáĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá˛áážááˇáşáĄá ááŻá¸ááážáąáˇááąááťáŹá¸áážá áááŻáˇáááŻááş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸ááž áááşááťáááşááźá áşáááşá
- áĄááźáŹá¸ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸ááŻááşá (á ) ááŻááźááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻááśááááˇáşáĄá፠áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻááśááŹá¸ááá°ááž ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸áá˝ááşááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááŻááşá ááá á፠ááŻááśáááşá¸áá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻáááŻááşáááşáᯠáááŻááŹá¸áááşá áááŻáˇááźáąáŹááˇáş ááŹááááşááźáŽá¸áĽáááąáážá áááŻáááŻáááŻááşááŹááąáŹááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáááşá¸áá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááźáŹá¸ááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸ áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áážááˇáşáááşáááŻááşáááşá
- áááŻáááŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ááąáŹ ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááąá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹáşááąáŹááşáááˇáşááŻááşáááşá¸á ááşáááş áĄááźáŹá¸ááąáŹ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áážá áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáĄáá˝ááş áááŻáááŻáĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ááąáŹ áĄááŹáá˝ááş áĄááśáĄááŹá¸ áááŻá¸ááźážááˇáşááąáŹáşááąáŹááşááąá¸ááᯠáĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááŻááşáááş ááźá áşáááşá
á áááşááąáŤáşáážáŻááťáŹá¸
- ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáážá á áŹáááşáááşá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááŹáá˝ááşá áąáŹááˇáşáážáąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááźáąáŹááşáááˇáşá ááŻá¸ááááşá ááŹáĄááťááŻá¸áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻáážáŹ ááąáŹááşááťááźááşá¸ááźááˇáşááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáş ááŹáá áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşááž áááĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááˇáş á áŻáśá ááşá¸á á áşááąá¸ááźááşá¸áážááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻááťáŹá¸á ááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáşáááşá¸ááźá áşáááşá ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşááŹááźá áşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááŻááşáá˝ááşááźáąáážááşá¸ááŹáá˝ááş ááááááŹáᏠáážáąá¸áá˝áąá¸ááąááźáŽá¸ ááááąáŹááşáážáŻáááşá¸ááážáááąá áááŻáááŻáĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ááąáŹáĄááŹáĄáá˝ááşááąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááŻáśááťážááźááˇáş áĄáááŻááŤááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźá áşááąáŤáşá áąáááşáááŻááşááąá
- áááşáá˝áąáˇáá˝ááş áĄááźáŹá¸áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááą(á )ááŻááźááˇáş á á˝á˛ááśáááąáŹ ááźá áşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áĽáááąá፠ááŻááśáááşá¸áá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ á ááşá¸á áŹá¸ááźááşá¸ áážá ááážá áááąááťáŹááąá áĄáááşá áááşáážáááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áĽáááąá፠ááŻááśáááşá¸áá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááąáˇááąááşáá˝ááş á áá áşáááť áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻáááŻááşááźááşá¸ááážáááŤá áááşá¸áááŻáˇááᯠáááŻááᯠáĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ááŹáĄáąáŹááş ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸ áááşááśáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááźááşá¸á áĄáážááşááááş áááŻááŹá¸ááąáááˇáş áĄááťááŻá¸áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ ááąá¸á á˝ááşá¸áááŻááşáááş áááŻááşááąá
áááááááşá¸áááşá¸áááş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááž ááąáŹááşáááşáĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááᯠáááşáážáŹá¸áá áşáááşááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąáá áşááŻá áŽááž ááąáŹááşáááşáĄááźá áşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻ á áŹáááşá¸áážáááşáážáŹá¸ááźáŽá¸á áá˝áąáááşááŹááŹá¸áážááááŻááşáááş áááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźááşáááşáááŻááşáááˇáş áĽáááąááźááşá¸áá áşááŻááᯠááąá¸áá˝á˛áááşáááŻáĄááşáááşá
áĄááťááŻá¸ááťáąá¸áá°á¸ááťáŹá¸
- áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááąáŹááşááťááźááşá¸áááş áĄáá˝ááşáááş áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááťážááážáŻ ááážáááąá ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááą(á)ááŻááž ááąáŹááşáááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáážáŹá¸ááźááşá¸áááş á áŹáááşáááşá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááŹáá˝ááşá áąáŹááˇáşáážáąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááąááźáá°ááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş ááťááąáŹááşáááˇáş ááááşáááˇáşáá˝ááşáááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááááááŹáᏠááťáąáŹáˇááťáá˝áŹá¸á áąáááşááźá áşáááşá
- ááąáŹááşáááşáĄá áŹá¸ áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽáá˝ážááşááťážááážáŻáážáááąáŹ áá˝áąáááşááźááˇáşáĄá áŹá¸áááŻá¸ááźááşá¸áááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááąá¸ááŹá¸ááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąáŤáş ááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşááąááąáŹ áĄááťááŻá¸áááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááťáąáŹáˇáááşá¸á áąááŤááááˇáşáááşá áĄáááşááźáąáŹááˇáşáááŻááąáŹáş áááŹá¸ááśááťáŹá¸ááᯠááąáŹááşááťááśááážáŻ ááážáááąáŹáˇááźááşá¸áááş á áŹáááşáááşá¸áááŹá¸áá˛áˇáááŻáˇáá°ááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ áá˝áąáááşááźááˇáş ááźá áşáážáŻá áŽáááşááźáŽá¸áááˇáşááąáŹááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá áĄááŻááşáááŻáááşáááş ááŻááşáááŻááşáááŻááşá áąáááş ááźá áşááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáş ááźá áşáááşá
- ááąáŹááşáááşáĄáŹá¸ áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽáá˝ážááşááťážááááˇáş áááşáá˝áąááźááˇáşáĄá áŹá¸áááŻá¸ááźááşá¸áááş ááąáŹááşáááşááźáąáŹááˇáş ááŻááşááťááśááąáááąáŹ áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşááĄááŻáśá¸á ááááşááᯠááťážáąáŹáˇááťáá˝áŹá¸áááŻááşáááşááźá áşáááşá
á áááşááąáŤáşáážáŻááťáŹá¸
- áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźáąáŹááˇáşááážáááŹááąáŹ ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáážááşáááşá¸áááş áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽááťážáážáŻááážáááąá ááźá áşáážáŻáážááşáááşá¸áááş áá°áá áşáŚá¸áĄáŹá¸ áááşá¸áááŻáˇááá°áážáŻáĄáááˇáşáĄáááşá¸áááŻáááááŻááşá áąááźááşá¸ (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áĄááŻááşáĄáááŻááşáážáŹáá˝áąááźááşá¸ááᯠáááááŻááşá áąááźááşá¸áĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş áááŻá¸ááťááŻá¸ááťáŹá¸áááşááąáŹááşá áąáááşá
- ááťáŹá¸ááźáŹá¸á áĄááťááŻá¸áĄá áŹá¸ááŽááťážáážáŻááážáááąáŹáááşáá˝áąáááş áááŹá¸ááśáĄáá˝ááş ááąá¸ááąáŹááşáááŻááşá á˝ááşá¸ááážáááťážááş ááźáżááŹááźá áşááŹáááŻááşáááşá áĄáááşá áááşá¸áááŻáˇáážáááąá¸áááŻááşááťážááş ááąá¸ááąáŹááşáááşááťááşáá˝ááşáážáŻáĄáá˝ááş ááąáŹááşáááşááźááˇáş ááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşááśááážáŻááťáŹá¸áážáááąáá˛áááşááźá áşáááşá
- ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáážá á áŹáááşáááşá¸áááŹá¸ááťáŹá¸á áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ ááŹáá˝ááşá áąáŹááˇáşáážáąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄááźáŹá¸áá°ááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááş ááźáąáŹááşáááˇáşá ááŻá¸ááááşá ááŹáĄááťááŻá¸áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻáážáŹ ááąáŹááşááťááźááşá¸ááźááˇáşááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻááťááŻá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáşááŹáá áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşááž áááĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááˇáş á áŻáśá ááşá¸á á áşááąá¸ááźááşá¸áážááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻááťáŹá¸á ááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááźáąáŹááˇáş áááşá¸ááźá áşáááşá
- áĽáááą(á)ááŻááᯠááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááźááşáááşááŹáá˝ááş áĄáąáŹááşááźááşáážáŻááážááááş ááááŹáááşáážáŹá¸áááˇáş áĄááťáááşáážááˇáş áááŻááşááśááąá¸á á˝ááşá¸áĄááşáááŻáˇááᯠááŻááşáá°áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááááş ááźá áşáááşá
á ááŻáášáááźáąáŹááş áááşá¸áááşá¸áážáŹ âáááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážáááźááˇáş ááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸â áááŻáᏠááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááą á ááŻá áááşááąáŹááşáááŻááşáááş áĄáááˇáşáĄáááşááŹá¸áážáááťááş áááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźááşáááşááááˇáş áááşá¸áááşá¸ááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸áááş âáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻâ á ááŹá¸á ᯠáá áşááŻááťááşá¸á áŽáĄáážáąáˇáá˝ááş âáááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážááážááˇáşááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹâ áá°áááˇáşá ááŹá¸á áŻááᯠáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááąá¸áááşáĄáá˝ááş áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ á ááŻááŻáśá¸ááᯠááźááşáááşáááş áĽáááąááźááşá¸áá áşáááş áááŻáĄááşáááşááźá áşáááşá
áĄááťááŻá¸ááťáąá¸áá°á¸ááťáŹá¸
- áĽáááąáá˝ááş âááááşáááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážáááźááˇáşâ áá°ááąáŹá ááŹá¸á áŻáááŻáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááźááşá¸áááş áááŻááşááźáŹá¸ááśááá°ááž áááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážáááźááˇáş áááŻááşááźáŹá¸áá°áĄáŹá¸ áĄáááąááťááşáá˛áˇááąáŹááźáąáŹááˇáş áááŻááşááźáŹá¸áá°áááşááž áááşááąááźááááˇáş áĽáááąáááŻááşááŹáĄááááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááŻáĄááşááťááşááᯠáááşááŽá¸ááąá¸ááŤáááşá áĄáááŻá፠áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻáá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááş áĄáášááááşáážááá˛áˇááźáąáŹááşá¸ áážááˇáş áááąáŹáşáá áááŻáˇáááŻááş áááŻááźáąáŹáááŻááąá¸ááŹá¸áá˛áˇáááˇáş áĄááťáááşá áĄááźáąáĄááąáááŻáˇáážááˇáş ááťáąáŹáşááŽáááˇáş áážááşááťááşááąá¸ááźááşá¸ááťááŻá¸áááŻááşááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááźááááşáááşá¸ áááŻáĄááşáááşááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸áááş áĄáážáŻáĄááąáĄáá˝ááşááťáŹá¸ ááááááŹááŹááťáąáŹáˇááťááŹáááşááźá áşááźáŽá¸á áĄáááŻá¸ááŻáśá¸áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸áᏠáááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸áááŻáˇ ááąáŹááşááááˇáşáááş ááźá áşáááşá
- áĽáááąáá˝ááş âáĄááźááşá¸áĄáááşâáá°ááąáŹá ááŹá¸á áŻáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááźááşá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááş áĄáážááşááááşáĄáášáááŹááş ááźá áşá áąáá˛áˇááźáąáŹááşá¸ áááŻááşááźáŹá¸áá°ááž ááźáááááˇáş áĽáááąáááŻááşááŹáĄááááˇáşááŻáśá¸áááŻáĄááşááťááş ááŻááááĄááťááşááᯠáááşááŽá¸áááŻááşááźááşá¸ááźá áşáááşá áĄáááŻááŤáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻáá˝ááş áááááŻááşáážáŻáĄááťááŻáˇááźá áşááąáŤáşáá˛áˇááźáąáŹááşá¸ áá°áááŻáśáááş áááááŻááşáážáŻ áĄáááŻááşá¸áĄáᏠáááŻáááşááąááźáááş áááŻáĄááşáááşááźá áşáááşá áááşá¸áááş áĄáážáŻáĄááąáĄáá˝ááşáááŻáááşá¸ ááťáąáŹáˇáááşá¸á áąááźáŽá¸ áĄáá°á¸áááźááˇáş áĄáážááşááááşááŻááşáááášááŹáááş ááśá áŹá¸ááťááşáááŻáᏠáááááŻááşá áąáááˇáş áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáážáŹá¸ááąá¸ááááˇáşáááşááźá áşáááşá
á áááşááąáŤáşáážáŻááťáŹá¸
- ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáá˝ááş ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááˇáşááťááşááąáááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠááźá áşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ ááťááşáážáááąáááŻááşááąá¸áááşá
- áĄááťáááşááźáŹááŹáááşáážááˇáşáĄááťáž áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄáááŻááŤáĽáááąááźáąáŹááşá¸áĄá ááźáááááˇáş áááŻáĄááşááťááşáážá áşááŻáážáŹ ááťá áşááťá°áážáŻááśááŹááááŻááşááźáŽá¸ áĄáŹá¸áááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸áááŻááşáááşá áááşá¸áá˛áˇáááŻáˇááąáŹ áĄáá˝áąáˇáĄááźáŻáśááᯠááŹááááşááźáŽá¸áĽáááąáážá áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻááşáᏠááŻááśááťáąáááŹáá˝ááşáááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş á ááşááťááşá¸ááźáŽá¸ áá˝áąáˇááźáŻáśáá˛áˇáááźáŽá¸ ááźá áşáááşá áááşáá˝áąáˇáá˝ááş áááşá¸ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáááşá¸áá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşááťáŹá¸áááş áá áşááťážá°áážáŻááŹá¸ááśáááźááşá¸ áááŻáˇáááŻááş ááŻááśááŹáá˝ááşáá˝ááˇáşáĄááźá áş áĄááŻáśá¸áááźáŻáááŻááşáᲠáĄáŹá¸áááşá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááźááşá¸áááŻáˇ ááźá áşááąáŤáşááąááŤáááşá
- áĽáááą(á)ááŻáááŻááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááźááşáááşááŹáá˝ááş áĄáąáŹááşááźááşáážáŻááážááááş ááááŹáááşáážáŹá¸áááˇáş áĄááťáááşáážááˇáş áááŻááşááśááąá¸á á˝ááşá¸áĄááşáááŻáˇááᯠááŻááşáá°áĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááááş ááźá áşáááşá
Myanmar has different options to reform its defamation laws in order to make them acceptable in a democracy. Each option has its benefits and challenges.
The first option is to adopt a Civil Defamation Law. A Civil Defamation Law is a mechanism for people whose reputations have been harmed to get compensation. A Civil Defamation Law is the preferred option.
Benefits
- The law would repeal all criminal defamation provisions in Myanmarâs six defamation laws. It is fast and effective because it instantly repeals those provisions without needing to amend each law individually.
- Any compensation awarded by the court goes to the plaintiff rather than to the State. This enables the plaintiff to repair their reputation with the compensation that they receive.
- It reduces State expenditure because the State is less involved in the case. The State does not need police to investigate the allegations, prosecutors to fight the case in court, or prisons to house people.
- It encourages people to solve conflict themselves, rather than involve the punitive State.
Challenges
- Adopting a full law takes time. It should take time to ensure a proper process of open consultation that has involved all stakeholders.
- A Civil Defamation Law can be misused by powerful people to bankrupt journalists, human rights defenders, and others who use their right to freedom of expression. Therefore a law must be drafted well in order to ensure it is not misused. It should include all the defences necessary under democratic standards and there must be an appropriate limit on damages.
The second option is to add stronger defences to the Penal Code. This would require amending Article 499 to revise the exceptions listed within to fully include those defences listed in international democratic standards. They include the defences of: truth, opinion, reasonable publication, repeating the words of others, innocent publication, consent, and absolute and qualified privilege. (See FEMâs publication, âDefamation? International Standards and Myanmarâs Legal Frameworkâ for further information on these defences.)
Benefits
- Stronger defences would enable defendants to defend themselves when arrested or charged, so that cases are either dropped by the police and prosecutors or rejected by the courts.
- Defendants can allegedly use the defences in the Penal Code when defending themselves against charges brought under any of the other five criminal defamation laws. Therefore stronger defences in the Penal Code could apply to all other defamation provisions.
- The process of developing stronger defences could encourage the development of stronger safeguards for freedom of expression in other laws.
Challenges
- The chilling effect on journalists, human rights defenders and others in Myanmar comes not only from the threat of imprisonment, but also from the threat of being investigated and prosecuted by a heavy-handed State. Criminal defamation cases are notoriously slow and inefficient in Myanmar. Adding stronger defences may not result in this changing.
- In practice, it is unclear whether the Penal Code defences are properly considered in cases filed under the other five laws. If the current Penal Code defences are not properly used at this time, then strengthening them may not have the desired effect.
The third option is to remove all prison sentences from Myanmarâs criminal defamation laws. This would require a bill to amend the laws so that in each the defamation provision is removed from the list of crimes punishable by prison, leaving it only punishable by fines.
Benefits
- Imprisonment for defamation is extremely disproportionate in all cases. Removing prison sentences from Myanmarâs six criminal defamation laws would significantly reduce the chilling effect that the laws have on journalists, human rights defenders, and others exercising their right to freedom of expression.
- Replacing imprisonment with proportionate fines would also have a less negative effect on freedom of expression because defendants would not be imprisoned and therefore would be able to continue to work as journalists etc. after being convicted.
- The replacement of imprisonment with proportionate fines would reduce the Stateâs expenditure on prisons.
Challenges
- A criminal record for defamation is still disproportionate. Criminal records affect a person negatively such as by undermining their social status or damage their ability to find employment.
- A large and disproportionate fine could be problematic to a defendant if they do not have the ability to pay it. If they do not pay it, they would still be threatened with imprisonment for failure to pay.
- The chilling effect on journalists, human rights defenders and others in Myanmar comes not only from the threat of imprisonment, but also from the threat of being investigated and prosecuted by a heavy-handed State.
- Reforming six laws takes significant time and political energy to achieve.
The fourth option is to amend the six criminal defamation laws so that they apply only to âdeliberate and serious defamationâ. This would require a bill to amend the laws so that in each, the phrase, âdeliberate and seriousâ is added before each, âdefamationâ.
Benefits
- Adding âdeliberateâ to the law creates a threshold where it must be proved that a defendant intentionally defamed a complainant. The prosecution would need to show that the defamation was malicious, and not just accidental or a fair comment on what was known at the time. This would significantly reduce the number of cases so that only the worst examples got to court.
- Adding âseriousâ to the law creates a second threshold where it must be proved that the defamation resulted in real harm. The prosecution would need to measurably prove that harm, rather than just assuming some harm had occurred. This would also reduce the number of cases, and in particular remove cases in which feelings were harmed rather than actual reputations.
Challenges
- Criminal defamation laws would still exist in Myanmar, which is against democratic standards.
- There is a risk that the two thresholds are ignored or weakened in courts over time. This has been seen in relation to the defamation defences in the Penal Code which in practice seem to have been ignored or weakened in courts over time.
- Reforming six laws takes significant time and political energy to achieve.
ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááŹáá˝ááş áĄáá áşáĄáá áşááąáŹá áááŻáááŻáĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ááąáŹ á áááşááąáŤáşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş ááźáŻáśááá˝ááşáážááááşá áááşá¸á áááşááąáŤáşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŹá¸áá° áĄááźáŹá¸áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸ááááşá¸ ááźáŻáśáá˝áąáˇáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ááźá áşáááᯠáááşá¸áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸ááááşá¸ áááŻááˇáşáááşá¸áááŻááˇáşáááşááźááˇáş ááŻáśáˇááźááşááźáąáážááşá¸áá˛áˇááźáááşá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáá°ááąáŹááş ááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸áá˝ááş áááşá¸áĄááťááşááᯠáááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸á áĽáşá¸á áŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ ááźááşáááşááŹá¸áááˇáşáááşá áĄáąáŹááşááŤáááŻáˇ ááŤáááşáááşá
âááźááşáá°áá°ááŻááŤáááşáážáŻáážááˇáş áááˇáşááťááşáááˇáş ááťá°ááŹááťááť áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáážáŻááťáŹá¸ (Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation)â [SLAPPs] ááťáŹá¸áááş áĄáááŻááşáĄáááşááźáŻááŻááşáááşáážááˇáş áááááááŻááşáááŻááşáááşááŹááźááşááąáŹááşááźááşá¸ááᯠáĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááťáááˇáş áááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážá ááŻááşááąáŹááşááąáŹáááşá¸áááşá¸ ááźá áşáááşá áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááŹá¸áá˝ááşá áĄáážáŻáááŻááşáááşáááş áá áşáááşááŹá¸ááᯠááźáąáŹááşáááˇáşá áąáááşáážááˇáş áááźáąáŹáá˛ááááŻáᲠááźá áşá áąáááŻáááˇáş áááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááááşáážáŹ áááşáážáŹá¸áááşá ááťáŹá¸ááąáŹáĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ááśááá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááŻááťááşá¸ááŹááźáŽá¸ áážáŻááşáá˝áąá¸á áážááşááźáŹááąáŹáĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáááŻááşáááş áá˝áąááźáąá¸áĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş áááşáááŻááşááźááźáŽá¸ áááŹá¸á á˝á˛ ááśááá°áááşá áĄáážáŻááźáŽá¸á áŽá¸áááş áááşá¸áááşááž ááŻááşááááşá¸áááźááşá¸(áááŻáˇ) ááąáŹááşá¸áááşá¸ááźááşá¸ ááźáŻááŻááşáááąáˇáážááááşá áááŻááşááśáĄááťáŹá¸áĄááźáŹá¸áá˝ááş SLAPP ááťáŹá¸ááᯠááááşáááşááŹá¸ááźá áşááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸ááááşá¸ áááŹá¸áĽáááąáĄá áážááşááťáąáŹááşáááşááśáááŻááşáážáŻááážááááˇáş áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄáááŻááşáĄáááşááźáŻááŻááşáááŻáááˇáş áááşáá˝ááşááťááş áááşáážáŹá¸ááąáŤáşáá˝ááşáážáŻááážáááąáŹ áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠá á áşááąá¸ áááşááťáááşááźáááşá
ááááŹááąáŹ á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸áĄááťááŻáˇáááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááş á ááááşááźáŽá¸ááźáŽá¸ááŹá¸ááŹá¸áážáááźáŽá¸ ááťážááážáŻááážááááˇáş ááźááşá¸áááşááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áĽáâááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻáᏠáĄáážáŻááźáŽá¸ááťáŹá¸ áááŻáˇáááŻááş áááşááŤáááşá፠áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ áá˝ááˇáşáááşááźáááşá áááşá¸áááŻáˇá áááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážáŹ ááąáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááźá áşáááşááąá¸áááşáážááˇáş áááŻááˇáşáááŻááşáááŻááş áááşááŹááźááşáááˇáş áĄááąáˇáĄá áĄáŹá¸ááąáŹááşá¸ááŹá áąáááŻáˇ ááźá áşáááşá áĄááťááŻá¸áááşáĄááąááźááˇáş áááŻááŻááşáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸ááᯠááźááşáá°áá°ááŻá ááááşá¸á áŹááťááşáážáŹááąáŤáşáá˝ááş ááąáŹááşá¸á á˝áŹááááážáááááźááˇáş ááťááˇáşáááşáá áąáŹááˇáşááááşá¸áᲠáááŹá¸áĽáááąáá˛áˇá á˝áŹ áá˝ááşáá˝ááşáááşáááş ááŻááşáááŻááşááŹáááŻááşááźáááşá áááŻáˇáĄáá˝ááş ááźááşáá°ááᯠáĄááááąá¸áážáŻáśáˇááąáŹáşáážáŻ ááŻááşáááş ááźáá¸á áŹá¸áá°áááŻááşá¸áááşáááşá¸ á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ááťá˝ááşááťáŻáśááťáááˇáşáĄáá áááźá áşááťážááş áĄááźááşá¸áĄáááş áááááŻááşááśá áŹá¸ááááˇáşáĄáá áááşáááŻááşááááşáááşá áĄááťááŻáˇáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş á¤ááá ášá áááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźáąáážááşá¸áááşáĄáá˝ááş á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááž áĄááąááąááťááşáážáŻááźááˇáş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááşáááŻááŤá áá˝ááˇáşááźáŻááťááşááźááŻáááş ááąáŹááşá¸ááśááááşáᯠááťáážááşááŹá¸áááşá áĄááťááŻáˇáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááşáááşá¸ áááŻááşááźáŹá¸áá°áááşá ááááŹáááşáážáŹá¸ááąáŹ áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻááᯠáááźá áşáááą ááąáŹáşááź ááááˇáş âáááŻááşááŹáááˇáş ááášááŹááąá¸ááŻáśá¸áážáŻáśá¸áážáŻâáĄáá˝ááş áááşáážááşá áśáá áşááŻááᯠááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸áááşá
ááŹááááşáááˇáşááąáŹ áĄááąááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááąáŹááşááśáá°ááťáŹá¸ áááźáŹáá ááźááşá¸ááťááşááŻááşááąáˇáážáááąáŹáĄááťááşáážáŹ áážáąáˇááą ááážáŹá¸áááŻááşááąáŹ ááźááşáá°áĄááťáŹá¸áĄááźáŹá¸áááş áááŹá¸á áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áááŻááşááźáŹá¸áááş áá˝áąááźáąá¸ááááşáááŻááşááź áá°ááąáŹ áĄááťááş ááźá áşáááşá áá°áááŻááşá¸ áááşá¸áá˛ááťááşá¸ááŹááá˝áąá¸ áááşáááˇáşáááşá¸áááşá¸ááźááˇáşáááᯠáááŹá¸ááťážááážáŻ ááážááááŻááşáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááźááˇáşáááşá¸áááŻáááşáážáŹ ááąáŹááşá¸áá˝ááşááąáŹ áááşáá˝ááşááťááş ááźá áşáááşá áááŻáˇááąáŹáş ááŹááááşáááˇáşáááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áááŻááşááźáŹá¸ááťááşáĄááťáŹá¸á áŻááźáŽá¸áážáŹ ááŤááŤáĄáŹááŹáážááá°ááťáŹá¸á áááŻááşááźáŹá¸ááźááşá¸ááźá áşááźáŽá¸ áááşá¸áá˛áá˝ááşá¸ááŤá¸ááąáŹ (áááŻáˇ) ááąá¸ááŻááşááśááŹá¸áááąáŹ ááźááşáá°ááťáŹá¸á áááŻááşááźáŹá¸ááźááşá¸ áááŻááşááąá áááşá¸áá˛áˇáááŻáˇ ááŤááŤáĄáŹááŹáážáááąáŹáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áážáąáˇááąáážáŹá¸áááşáĄáá˝ááş ááŻáśááąáŹááşááąáŹ ááźá˝ááşááážáŻáážáááźáááşá áááşá¸áááŻáˇá áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşá áá áŹááąá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹ áĽáááąáĄááŹáážáá áá°ááŽááąá¸áááˇáşáĄáá˝ááşáááşá¸ ááťážááážáŻ ááážááááˇáşáĄááźááş áááŻááşááśááąáŹáşáĄááŻáśá¸á ááááşáááŻáááşá¸ áá˝ááşá¸áá˛áˇá áąáááşá
áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻ áááźá áşáááŻááşáááˇáş áááźáąáŹáááąáŹááşááąáŹ áĄááąá¸áĄáá˝á˛ ááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻááťááşááťáŹá¸ááąáŤáş áĄááźáąááśá áááźáŹáááááŻáááᯠáĄáážáŻáá˝ááˇáşááąáˇáážáááźáááşá áááşá¸áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá˝áąáˇááááşáááˇáş áá áşááŻáááşá¸ááąáŹ áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻ áááŻáááşáážáŹ ááŹáá ááŻááşáááşá áąáŹáşááŹá¸áážáŻ (áááŻáˇ) ááąáˇááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá áááŻááşáááŻááşááśá áŹá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸áᏠááźá áşáááşá áááŻáˇáĄááźááş áááŹá¸á á˝á˛áá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻááᯠáááŻááşá¸ááŹáááŻááşááąáŹ ááŻáśá áśááźááˇáş áááźáááŻááşááąá áĄááťááŻáˇáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááŻáśá¸ááąáŹáşá áĄáážáŻááᯠá á áşááąá¸ááźáŹá¸ááŹáážáŻ áááŻááşáááş áááááŻááşáá áşáážáŻ âááźáąáŹááşááâááźáąáŹááşááᯠá á áşááąá¸áážáŻááťááŻá¸ áážááááşáááşá á¤áááşá¸ááźááˇáş ááŻáśá¸ááąáŹáşáááş áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻ ááážáááąáŹ áĄááąá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇ áĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźááşááźááşáááşáááş ááááşáááŻááşáááŻááşáááşá
áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźáąáŹááˇáşááźá áşááąáŹ áááááŻááşáá áşááŹáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááťáááşáááŻáĄáá˝ááşá¸ áĄáážáŹá¸ááźááşááźááşá¸ (áááŻáˇ) ááąáŹááşá¸áááşááźááşá¸ ááźáŻááŻááşááŤá ááťážáąáŹáˇááťááźááşá¸ (áááŻáˇ) áááşááťááźááşá¸ ááŻááşáááŻááşáááşá áááŻááşááśáĄááťáŹá¸áĄááźáŹá¸áá˝ááş á¤áĄááťáááşáááŻáĄáá˝ááşá¸ ááŻááşááąáŹááşáááˇáşá áá áşááᯠáĄáááą ááťááşáážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸á áĽáááąáááŻááşáᏠááŻááşááŻáśá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸áá˝ááş áááˇáşáá˝ááşá¸ááąá¸áá˝á˛ááŹá¸áááşá
âáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áááŻáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş (áá áşáááşáááŹá¸ááźááŻááşáĄáá˝ááş) áááŻáááŻáááşáá˛á áąáááşáážááˇáş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸á ááááşáááŻááŻááşá áąáááş ááŻááşááŻáśá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸ ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáá˝ááşááťááşáážááážá áĄáá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸á áŹá¸ ááŻááşááąáˇáážáááźáááşá áááŻáˇááźáąáŹááˇáş ááźááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áááş áĄááťáááşáá˝á˛ááźáŽá¸ áá˝áąááŻááşááźáąá¸ááťááťáŹá¸áááˇáşáĄáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáááŻááşáááş ááźáąáŹááşáá˝áśáˇááŹááźááźáŽá¸ áááŻááˇáşáááŻááşáááŻááş áááşááŹááźááşááźááşááąáŹááşááŹááźáááşá áááşá¸ááŻááşáá˝ááşááťáŹá¸ááŻááşááŹáá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸á áááźááŹááşá¸ááŹá¸ááąáŹ ááŻááşááŻáśá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááŻá፠ááąáŹááşááťáąáŹáş ááŻááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸áááşá¸ ááŤáááşáááşá áááŻááşááśáĄááťáŹá¸áĄááźáŹá¸áááş áĽáááąááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áážáŻáážááˇáş ááŻááşááŻáśá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸ááźáŻááźááş ááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áážáŻááᯠáááşááťááşááŽáĄáąáŹááş ááŻááşááąáŹááşááŹáá˛áˇááźáááᯠáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáâááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄáá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸á áŹá¸ áááŻááşá áąáááşáĄáá˝ááş ááášááážá áşáááşá ááŻáśá¸ áááŻá¸áááşáááş áááŻáĄááşáááşáááŻáááşá¸ áĄáááĄáážááşááźáŻááźáááşá
Myanmar is likely to face new and growing challenges in its application of defamation laws. These forthcoming challenges have been seen in other similar countries which have responded to them in different ways. Reform of the defamation framework should factor in and prepare for them. They include:
âStrategic Lawsuits Against Public Participationâ (SLAPPs) are a malicious method of using defamation laws to bully and promote self-censorship. Complainants do not expect their complaint to succeed in court. Instead, their aim is to intimidate and silence others. Usually the complainant is richer than the defendant and can afford long and complex cases. Defendants withdraw or apologise to escape from the case. SLAPPs are banned in many countries and courts are expected to identify and dismiss cases that have no legal merit and are clearly intended to bully.
Some unscrupulous businesses combine their sizable legal budgets with unfair and punitive defamation laws to bring large or repeated cases, with the intention of punishing critics and encouraging self-censorship. As a result, such businesses become free to act unethically or unlawfully without the public being properly informed. Anybody who tries to raise awareness is likely to be bankrupted or seriously inconvenienced. Some countries deal with this issue by requiring businesses to get prior permission before bringing a defamation case. Other countries have added a threshold for âsubstantial financial lossâ whereby complainants must demonstrate significant harm.
Proponents of criminal defamation laws often argue that civil courts are unaffordable to many members of the public who cannot afford to pay for lawyers. Fulfilling the right of access to justice for everyone regardless of their means is an important aim. However, the vast majority of criminal defamation complaints are made by powerful people, not by poorer or marginalised people. Such powerful people often have adequate means to pay for their own lawyers, so it is unfair that their case is supported by State-funded prosecutors, which diminishes the Stateâs budget.
Complainants often bring cases based on trivial claims in which there was little to no harm caused. Often in these cases the only harm is to personal feelings for example from jokes, insults or parody, and the complainant cannot demonstrate the harm caused in any measurable way. In some countries, courts may determine whether a test of harm is satisfied before the majority of the court proceedings, so that the court can quickly dismiss cases which have resulted in little to no harm.
Much of the harm caused by defamation can be reduced or removed altogether if it is followed by a quick correction or apology. In many countries, this quick response is recognised in defamation laws and their application by courts. If a defendant quickly corrects false information or corrects and apologises, courts take that into account when deciding on the case. However, a defendant should never be forced to make an insincere correction or apology.
Complainants often intentionally misuse procedures to increase the inconvenience and cost of cases. This encourages self-censorship as people fear being caught up in a protracted and costly case. These tactics include procedural tricks that are not in the defamation law. Many countries have tried to balance legal reform with procedural reform, recognising that improvements in both are necessary in order to ensure defamation laws are not misused.
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ááážáááŤá áá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááŤáááşáááˇáş áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş áááşáááˇáş ááąáŹááşáááşááŹáááşáá°ááŻááşááąáŹááşááááˇáş áĄááŹááťáŹá¸ ááážáááąá
áááŻáˇááąáŹáş FEM áĄááąááźááˇáş áá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááŤáááşáááˇáş áĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááąáŹááşáážáŻááşáážáŹá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááş áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááááşááąáŤáşáá˝áŹá¸áááşááźá
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áşááᯠáá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááŤáááşáá°ááťáŹá¸ááž áááŻáĄááŤáá˝ááş ááŻáśá¸ááźááşáááŻááşáááşá
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ááşáá˝ááş áááşá¸áážáŻááşáážáŹá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸á áá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááŤáááşáááş ááášááážááááážá FEM ááž ááąá¸ááźááşá¸ááźááşá¸á FEM áááş áá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááŤáááşááŹá¸ááźáŽá¸ááźá
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ááşá¸ááŻáśá¸áážáŻáśááąáŹáşááąá¸áážáŻááşáážáŹá¸áážáŻáĄááťááŻáˇááᯠáŚá¸ááąáŹááşááźáŻááŻááşáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ááźá
áşáááşá
áá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸áĄáá˝á˛áˇááťáŹá¸áĄáŹá¸ ááąáŹááşáááşáááŻáĄááşáááˇáş áĄááąáŹááşáĄááśáˇááťáŹá¸áĄáá˝ááşáááşá¸ FEM ááž áááşá¸áážááşá¸ááŤáááşá áĽááᏠ– áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáážááˇáş áááşáááşá áááşáááşá¸ááąá¸ááźááşá¸á áá˝áąáˇááŻáśáá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş ááŤáááşááąá¸ááźááşá¸áážááˇáş áááŻáĄááşáááˇáş áááşááąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸ ááśáˇáááŻá¸ááąá¸ááźááşá¸ áááŻáˇ ááźá
áşáááşá
ááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸áĄáááŻááźáŻáá˝ážáŹá áá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááŤáááşáááşáĄáá˝ááş ááášááážááááˇáş áááŻáˇáááŻááş áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸ááťááşáááˇáş áĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄááąááźááˇáş áĄáąáŹááşá፠ááŻáśá áśááᯠááźááˇáşá á˝ááşá FEM áážááˇáş áááşáá˝ááşáááŻááşááŤáááşá
Reforming defamation laws is difficult and reforms are unlikely to be successful without broad support.
The process of endorsement includes discussion and awareness-raising on defamation, and how reforms can be made.
Endorsers can come from any background. Endorsing organisations already include civil society organisations, NGOs, media networks, unions, lawyers’ networks, and not-for-profit businesses.
Nothing. Endorsing organisations do not have any further responsibilities.
However, FEM will involve endorsing organisations in discussions on all future activities, and you can decide whether to participate or not.
For example, we will ask endorsing organisations if they would like to participate in advocacy activities, as those activities are developed. FEM has already led some joint advocacy activities with endorsing organisations.
FEM also offers endorsing organisations additional support. For example, we can give trainings on defamation, take part in meetings, and provide additional materials.
Organisations wishing to endorse the reform options – or to discuss possibly endorsing – should contact FEM, for example by completing the following form.
á¤áĄáááŻááźáŻááťááşááťáŹá¸áááşáááşáááşá¸ááŻáśá¸áážá áşáĄááźáŹá áŻáśá ááşá¸á á áşááąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááźáŻááŻááşááźáŽá¸ááąáŹááş áááşáááŻááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşáá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááźá áşáááşá
These proposals follow three years of investigation, research into best practices, and discussions with stakeholders.
FEM áááş áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸á áĄááťááŻá¸áááşááąáŹááşáážáŻááᯠá áŻáśá ááşá¸ááąáŹáşááŻááşááźááşá¸ááźááˇáş á¤ááŻááşáááşá¸á ááşááᯠá áááşáá˛áˇáááşá
áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş âáá(á):á á áşáážááşáááˇáşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááźááşá¸ááážáâ áá°ááąáŹ ááąáŤááşá¸á ááşááźááˇáş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáážá ááŹááááşáážáŻááźáąáŹááşááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááᯠáĄááąá¸á áááşááŻáśá¸áááşááŹá¸áááˇáş áĄá áŽáááşááśá áŹááᯠFEM á ááŻááşááąáá˛áˇáááşá
FEM á ááŻáśá¸áááşááťááşáĄá áŽáááşááśá áŹáá˝ááş áááşá¸áĽáááąáážááˇáş áááşá¸áĽáááąáĄáŹá¸ áááşáá˝áąáˇááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸á ááááŹáááşáážáŹá¸áááˇáş ááźáżááŹááťáŹá¸áážáááąáááşááᯠáá˝áąáˇáážááá˛áˇáááşá áĽáááŹáĄáŹá¸ááźááˇáş ááźááşáááşááŻááśááťáąááážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááşáááśáá˛áˇá ááááşáĄááąááźááˇáş ááźá áşáážáŻáááşáážáŹá¸á áŽáááşááśááážáŻáážáŻááşá¸áááş ááá ááŹáááŻááşáážáŻááşá¸ ááźá áşáá˛áˇáááşá

ááźáżááŹááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá˝á˛ááźáŹá¸áá˝áąá¸ááŻááşááźáŽá¸ááąáŹááş FEM áááş áĄááąáŹááşá¸áá˝ááşááŻáśá¸ááąáŹ áááşáá˝áąáˇááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áážáŻááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááŻááşááśáááŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠá áŻáśá ááşá¸ááąáŹáşááŻááşáá˛áˇáááşá
áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş “áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áááŻáᏠááŹáᲔ áá°áááˇáş áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáşáážá áááŻááşááśáááŹá áśáážáŻááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áĄááźáąáŹááşá¸ áĄááťááşá¸ááťáŻáśá¸ áĄá áŽáááşááśá áŹáá áşááŻááᯠFEM á ááŻááşááąáá˛áˇáááşá
FEM á áĄá áŽáááşááśá áŹáá˝ááş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá ááŹááááşáážáŻááźáąáŹááşááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşááźááşá¸áĽáááą (á) áᯠááᯠáá˝á˛ááźáŹá¸áá˝áąá¸ááŻááşáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ áááşá¸áááŻáˇáááş áĄáááşááźáąáŹááˇáş áĄáá˝ááşááźáżááŹáážáááąáááşáááŻáááşá¸ ááąáŹáşááźáá˛áˇáááşá

áááá ááž áááá ááŻáážá áşáĄáá˝ááşá¸ ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ ááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸áĄáá˝ááş áá˝áąá¸ááťááşá ááŹáááşá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠFEM á áááşáááŻááş ááąáŹáşááŻááşáá˛áˇááŤáááşá
á¤áááşá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áááşáĄáá˝ááş FEM áááş áááşáááŻááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áá˝áąáˇááŻáśáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ áážááşááťááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄááźáśááźáŻááťááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠááá°á áŻááąáŹááşá¸áá˛áˇáááşá FEM áááş áĄáááşáááşáĄáá˝á˛áˇáĄá ááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á ááźááşááąáŹááşá áŻáá˝ážááşááąáŹáşááž áá˝ážááşááąáŹáşáááŻááşá áŹá¸áážááşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáşáĄáá° áĄááąá¸á áááşáá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áááˇáş áĄááŻááşááŻáśáá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áá˝á˛ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáŚá¸á áŽá¸ááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáá˛áˇáááşá á¤áá˝áąá¸ááťááşá ááŹáááşá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹá¸áááş áááşáááŻááşáá°ááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄááąá¸áĄáááş áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸ááźáŽá¸ááž áá˝ááşááąáŤáşááŹááąáŹ áááşá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááźá áşááźáąáŹááşá¸ FEM ááž áĄáááŻááşáĄáᏠáááŻáááŻááşáááşá
áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş ááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸áááşá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹá¸ááŤáááşáááˇáş âáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸ áĄáááŻááźáŻááťááşááťáŹá¸â áĄá áŽáááşááśá áŹááᯠááŻááşááąáá˛áˇáááşá
FEM started this process by investigating the effect of defamation laws.
In 2017, FEM published the first detailed review of criminal defamation case law in Myanmar: 66(d): No real change.
FEM’s review found significant problems in the law and legal practice. For example, defences were not being accepted and as a result there was a 100% conviction rate.

After identifying the problems, FEM investigated best practices and international standards.
In 2019, FEM published a summary report of international standards on defamation law: Defamation?
FEM’s report also identified Myanmar’s six criminal defamation laws, showing why they were so problematic.

From 2018-2020, FEM developed a series of options for reforming Myanmar’s defamation legislation.
FEM met with a range of stakeholders to discuss these options and collect feedback and recommendations. FEM conducted detailed workshops with civil society organisations and senior union MPs. FEM learnt throughout, ensuring that the options developed reflected stakeholders.
In 2020, FEM published the reform options in a report: Defamation reform options
ááŽáááŻááááşáá áşáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áĄáá˝ááşáá°á¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ááąááąáŹ áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşááᯠááŹáá˝ááşáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áážáŻ ááźááŻááşááŹáá˛áˇááźáááşá áááŻááşááśáá áşááŻááťááşá¸á áŽá áĄááźá áşáĄááťááşáááŻááşá¸áááş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáááŻááşáᏠááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áážáŻáĄáá˝ááş áááşáááşá¸á Ꮰááźá áşáááŻááşááŤáááşá áĄáąáŹááşááŤáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áááş ááźááşááŹáááŻááşááśáážááˇáş áĄáá˝ááşááŽá¸á ááşááąáŹ common law á áá áş (áááŹá¸áá°ááźáŽá¸áážááˇáş áááŹá¸ááŻáśá¸ááťáŹá¸á ááŻáśá¸ááźááşááťááşááᯠáĄááźáąááśááźá áşááąáŤáşááŹááąáŹ áĽáááąá áá áş (áááŻáˇ) áĄááşášáááááşáááŻá¸áᏠáĽáááąá áá áş)áážááˇáş áááŻáááŻáᎠááŹááááşááźáŽá¸ (ááźá áşáážáŻáááŻááşááŹáĽáááą)ááᯠááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸ááąáááˇáşáĄáá˝ááş áááşá¸áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸á ááźáŻááźááşááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸ ááŻááşáááşá¸á áĽáşáááş ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹ áážáŻáśáˇááąáŹáşáážáŻ ááźá áşá áąáááŻááşááŤáááşá
áááá áá˝ááş ááŽáááááşášááŹáĄá ááŻá¸ááááş ááźáŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááŹááąáŹ áááááášáááťáŹá¸áĄááąáŤáş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá ááŻáśáˇááźááşááąáŹááşáá˝ááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ áĄááŤáĄáááş áááşá¸áááŻáˇá ááŻááşáááşá¸ááąáŹááşááŹááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá°áááá áąáááş ááŽááŽááŹáááşááŹá áá áş áá áşááťáąáŹáˇááźááş ááťááˇáşááŻáśá¸áá˛áˇáááᯠááťáŹáááşáá áşáážááˇáş áá°áˇáĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ ááŹáá˝ááşáá°ááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááŻááᯠáááŹá¸á á˝á˛áá˛áˇáááşá áážá áşáážá áşáĄááźáŹáá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááźááˇáş áĄáážáŻ áá áážáŻáááşáááŻááşááąáááąáŹ ááŽáááááşášááŹááááşá¸á áŹáĄááşááŽááŹáá áşáŚá¸á ááŻááááášáááś áĄáá°áĄáᎠááťážáąáŹááşááŹá¸áá˛áˇááŹááž áááŻááşááśáááŹáĄáááŻááşá¸áĄáááŻááşá¸á ááŽáááááşášááŹáĄá ááŻá¸ááááş ááąáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ááᯠáááážáááşááááşá¸ááťáŻááşáááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááťááşááťááşááźááˇáşááźááˇáş áĄáá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸á áŹá¸ááŻááşááąáááşááᯠáĄáŹááŻáśá ááŻááşááááŹááźáááşá
áááá ááŻáážá áş áá˝áąá¸ááąáŹááşáá˝á˛áá˝ááş ááŽáááááşášááŹááźááşáá°ááťáŹá¸á áááŻááşááśá ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽááťáááşá¸ááąáážáŻááᯠááźááşáááşááźážááˇáşáááşáááşáᯠáááááąá¸áá˛áˇáááˇáş áĄá ááŻá¸ááá áşáá áşáááşááᯠáá˝áąá¸ááąáŹááşáááşááźážáąáŹááşáá˛áˇáááşá áĄá ááŻá¸ááá áşáááş áá áşáážá áşáĄáá˝ááşá¸áááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ áĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻááž áááŹá¸ááážáŻáĄááźá áş ááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áᏠáááşá¸áááŻáˇáááş ááááş áĄáŹááŹáážááşáážááˇáş ááá°ááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááźááá˛áˇáááşá ááŽáááááşášááŹáááŻááşááśá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áááş áááşáážááĄááťáááşáá˝ááş áááŹá¸ááážáŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸áᏠááźá áşáááşá
ááŽáááŻáááąá áŽá áá áş áááˇáşááťááşáááŻááşááŹááąááźáŽá¸ ááźá áşááąáŹ Advanced democracies áááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸á áĽáááąááťáŹá¸áá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻááźááˇáşáááşáážááşááŹá¸áááˇáş ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸áážááááşá áááŻáˇááąáŹáş áááŻáááŻááşááśááťáŹá¸áážáááźááşáá°ááťáŹá¸á áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻááźáŻáááˇáş áĄáá˝áąá¸áĄááąáŤáşááᯠáááşáááśáááˇáşáĄáá˝ááş áááŻáĽáááąááťáŹá¸ááᯠáá˝ááşá á˝áŹááŻáśá¸áá˛áááş (áááŻáˇáááŻááş) áá áşááŤááž áááŻáśá¸á á˝á˛ááąá áĽáááŹáááŻáááąáŹáş áá°ááąáááş áááá ááŻáážá áşáážáᏠáĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áş ááááşáážááşááąáŹáˇááąáŹáşáááşá¸ áááşá¸ ááááŻááşáᎠáážá áşááąáŤááşá¸ áá ááááşá¸á áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áşáááşáážááşááŹá¸áááˇáş ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸ááźáŻááźááşá¸ ááážááá˛áˇááąá
áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áş ááźááŹááşá¸ááťááşááťáŹá¸ááᯠáĄáá°á¸áááźááˇáş ááŤááŤáážáááąáŹ á áŽá¸áá˝áŹá¸ááąá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸áážááşááťáŹá¸á ááá˝á˛ááŻáśá¸ááąááźáąáŹááşá¸ áĄá áŽáááşááśá áŹááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹ áá˝ááşááąáŤáşáá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ááąáŹááş áááá ááźááˇáşáážá áşáá˝ááş áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻ ááźáŻááźááş ááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛ááąá¸ áá°ááŻáááşááááşá¸áá áşáᯠááźá áşááąáŤáşááŹáá˛áˇáááşá áá°ááąá ááŹááááşáááˇáşááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááᯠáĄááŻáśá¸áááźáŻáááşáážáŹ áážá áşááąáŤááşá¸ááťáŹá¸á á˝áŹ ááźáŹááźáŽááźá áşááąáŹáşáááşá¸ ááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşáážáŻáĄááŹá¸áĄááŹáážááááˇáşáĄáá˝ááş áá˝ááşáááşá á˝áŹááŻááşááąáŹáşááźáąáŹáááŻáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąáŤáş áĽáááąá ááąá¸ááŹá¸ááťááş áĽáááąááááş ááźááşáááşááźáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşááąááąáŹáĄáᏠ(Chilling Effect) ááźá áşááąáááˇáşáááźááˇáş áááşááááşá¸ááŻááşááąáŹááşáá°ááťáŹá¸á ááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áşááž áĄááźááˇáşáĄá ááŻááşááááşá¸ááźááşá¸ááᯠáááŻááŹá¸ááźááźááşá¸ ááźá áşáááşá
áĄááźáŽá¸áááşá¸ááťáŹáááşáá áşááťáŹá¸áážááˇáş áááášááśáááŹáážááşááťáŹá¸áááşá¸ áá°áĄáá˝ááˇáşáĄááąá¸ááŹáá˝ááşáá°ááťáŹá¸á áááŻáááşááááşá¸áá˝ááş ááŤáááşáá°á¸ááąáŤááşá¸ááŹáá˛áˇááźááźáŽá¸ áá°ááąáĄááąááźááˇáş ááąáŹááşáááşááŽáááŻáááąá áŽááźáąáŹááşá¸áá˛áážáŻááťáŹá¸ááŻááşááąáŹááşáááş áááŻáĄááşááąááąá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸ áááŻáááşááááşá¸á áĄááááąá¸ááŻááşáááşá¸ááźá áşááŹáá˛áˇáááşá áá°ááŻááááĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áážáŻáážááˇáş áá°ááŻááŤáááşááąáŹ áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áááŻááşáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ áá áşáážá áşááźáŹ ááŻááşááąáŹááşááźáŽá¸ááąáŹááş áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş áááŹá¸ááąá¸áááşááźáŽá¸ááŹáá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąááźááşá¸ááᯠáá°ááŻááᯠááťááźáá˛áˇáááşá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠáááŹá¸ááážáŻáĄááźá áş áááşáážááşáááˇáş áááŻáĽáááąááźááşá¸áááş áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş áá˝ážááşááąáŹáşáááŻáˇ ááąáŹááşáážááá˛áˇááźáŽá¸ áĄááąá¸ááźáŽá¸áááˇáş áá˝áąá¸áá˝áąá¸áááŻááşáááşáážáŻááťáŹá¸ ááźáŻááŻááşáĄááźáŽá¸ áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş áĄáááşááźáŻ ááźááŹááşá¸áááŻááşáá˛áˇáááşá áááşáážááá˝ááş áá°ááąá áááŹá¸ááážáŻáĄááźá áşáááşáážááşááŹá¸ááąáŹ áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻáĽáááąáᏠáážááááşá
áááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş áĄááášááááĄááťááŻá¸ááŹá¸áá˝ááşááááşáĄá ááŻá¸áá ááŽáááááşášááŹá áŚá¸ááąáŹááşáážáŻáááşá¸ááźáąáŹááşá¸áááŻáááŻááşá áĄáááąááťááşáážáŻááᯠááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áşááž ááŻááşááááşá¸áááş ááášááážáááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááźáąááŹáá˛áˇáááşá áážá áşáážá áşáĄááźáŹáá˝ááş ááźááşááźáŹá¸ááąá¸áážááˇáşááŻááşááśááŻááşáá˝ážááˇáşááąá¸ áááşááźáŽá¸ááŹáááááşá¸ ááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áşááž ááŻááşááááşá¸ááźááşá¸ááᯠááąáŹááşááśááźáąáŹááşá¸ ááźáąááŹáá˛áˇáááşá áĄááášááááĽáááąááąáŹáşááážááşááááşá¸ ááŹááááşáážáŻáĄááźá áşááŻááşááááşá¸ááᯠáĄáŹá¸ááąá¸áááˇáş áĄááźáśááźáŻá áŹáááşá¸ áá áşá áąáŹááşááᯠáááá ááŻáážá áşáá˝ááş ááŻááşááźááşáá˛áˇáááşá
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Many democratic and transitional countries have reformed their defamation laws in order to protect freedom of expression. Each can provide lessons for defamation reform in Myanmar. Reform processes in the following countries are particularly inspirational because they share with Myanmar very similar common law systems and similar colonial penal codes.
In 1998, the Sri Lankan government re-imposed media censorship and increased prosecutions of journalists and human rights defenders in order to cover up what the government was doing, including in its response to growing conflict. Two years later, a Sri Lankan newspaper editor who was facing 11 defamation charges appealed to the UN, raising international attention to the governmentâs widespread misuse of defamation laws to stifle criticism.
In 2001 elections, the Sri Lankan people voted in a new government which promised to reverse the countryâs democratic decline. Within a year the new government had completely decriminalised defamation laws to show everyone that they were different from previous dictators. Sri Lanka only has civil defamation laws now.
Many advanced democracies still have old criminal defamation provisions in their laws. However, in practice they are rarely or never used because their people no longer accept the idea of criminalising defamation. For example, the UK had criminal defamation provisions until 2013 but the provisions had not been used for 30 years.
In 2010, a public campaign to reform defamation laws was launched following increasing reports that they were being misused, particularly by powerful business owners. Although the UKâs criminal defamation provisions had not been used for many years, campaigners wanted full decriminalisation because the potential threat still resulted in a chilling effect on freedom of expression.
Senior journalists and scientists joined human rights defenders to promote the campaign, which reminded people that the UK still needed more democratisation. After a year of public pressure and public consultations, the Ministry of Justice introduced a draft defamation bill in 2011. The defamation bill proposed decriminalising defamation and went to parliament in 2012 and after significant consultation was adopted in 2013. The UK only has civil defamation laws now.
In 2011, the Indian National Congress government announced its interest to follow Sri Lankaâs lead and decriminalise defamation. Two years later, the Minister of Information and Broadcasting announced his support for decriminalisation. Indiaâs Law Commission published a consultation paper in 2014 which encouraged decriminalisation too.
Unfortunately, a different government without any commitment to reform was elected in 2014. Campaigners redirected their attention to the Indian Supreme Court in a bid to get the Penal Code provisions repealed. The Supreme Court announced in its 2016 decision that while it could not repeal the provision, it did believe that nobody should be prosecuted for, âcalling a government corrupt or unfitâ.
In 2017, backbench parliamentarians put forward the, âRight to Protection of Speech and Reputation Billâ to decriminalise defamation. The Indian National Congress leader, Rahul Gandhi, made a manifesto commitment for the 2019 elections that Congress would decriminalise defamation if elected.
The Maldives held its first-ever democratic elections in 2008 following the adoption of a new constitution. The people elected the democratic campaigner, Mohamed Nasheed as the countryâs first elected president. The government wanted to demonstrate to the people that it was different from the previous dictatorship. Within a year, the government adopted a new law to completely decriminalise defamation. Unfortunately, in 2012 a coup forced out the elected president and returned the authoritarian government again. They adopted the, âAnti-Defamation and Freedom of Expression Actâ to re-criminalise defamation because it was their greatest tool to threaten and harass the media and civil society.